Immunity is a medical term that describes a state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion. Immunity involves both specific and non-specific components. The non-specific components act either as barriers or as eliminators of wide range of pathogens irrespective of antigenic specificity.
Other components of the immune system adapt themselves to each new disease encountered and are able to generate pathogen-specific immunity. Adaptive immunity is often sub-divided into two major types depending on how the immunity was introduced. Naturally acquired immunity occurs through contact with a disease causing agent, when the contact was not deliberate, whereas artificially acquired immunity develops only through deliberate actions such as vaccination.
Both naturally and artificially acquired immunity can be further subdivided depending on whether immunity is induced in the host or passively transferred from an immune host. Passive immunity is acquired through transfer of antibody or activated T-cells from an immune host, and is short lived, usually lasts only a few months, whereas active immunity is induced in the host itself by antigen, and lasts much longer, sometimes life-long. The diagram below summarizes these divisions of immunity.
Friday, March 13, 2009
AIDS
This condition progressively reduces the effectiveness of the immune system and leaves individuals susceptible to opportunistic infections and tumors. HIV is transmitted through direct contact of a mucous membrane or the bloodstream with a bodily fluid containing HIV, such as blood, semen, vaginal fluid, preseminal fluid, and breast milk.
This transmission can involve anal, vaginal or oral sex, blood transfusion, contaminated hypodermic needles, exchange between mother and baby during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding, or other exposure to one of the above bodily fluids.
AIDS is now a pandemic. In 2007, an estimated 33.2 million people lived with the disease worldwide, and it killed an estimated 2.1 million people, including 330,000 children. Over three-quarters of these deaths occurred in sub-Saharan Africa, retarding economic growth and destroying human capital.
Genetic research indicates that HIV originated in west-central Africa during the late nineteenth or early twentieth century. AIDS was first recognized by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 1981 and its cause, HIV, identified in the early 1980s.
Although treatments for AIDS and HIV can slow the course of the disease, there is currently no vaccine or cure. Antiretroviral treatment reduces both the mortality and the morbidity of HIV infection, but these drugs are expensive and routine access to antiretroviral medication is not available in all countries. Due to the difficulty in treating HIV infection, preventing infection is a key aim in controlling the AIDS epidemic, with health organizations promoting safe sex and needle-exchange programmes in attempts to slow the spread of the virus.
This transmission can involve anal, vaginal or oral sex, blood transfusion, contaminated hypodermic needles, exchange between mother and baby during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding, or other exposure to one of the above bodily fluids.
AIDS is now a pandemic. In 2007, an estimated 33.2 million people lived with the disease worldwide, and it killed an estimated 2.1 million people, including 330,000 children. Over three-quarters of these deaths occurred in sub-Saharan Africa, retarding economic growth and destroying human capital.
Genetic research indicates that HIV originated in west-central Africa during the late nineteenth or early twentieth century. AIDS was first recognized by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 1981 and its cause, HIV, identified in the early 1980s.
Although treatments for AIDS and HIV can slow the course of the disease, there is currently no vaccine or cure. Antiretroviral treatment reduces both the mortality and the morbidity of HIV infection, but these drugs are expensive and routine access to antiretroviral medication is not available in all countries. Due to the difficulty in treating HIV infection, preventing infection is a key aim in controlling the AIDS epidemic, with health organizations promoting safe sex and needle-exchange programmes in attempts to slow the spread of the virus.
Virus structure
Viruses consist of two or three parts: all viruses have genes made from either DNA or RNA, long molecules that carry genetic information; all have a protein coat that protects these genes; and some have an envelope of fat that surrounds them when they are outside a cell. Viruses vary in shape from simple helical and icosahedral shapes, to more complex structures. They are about 100 times smaller than bacteria. The origins of viruses are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids—pieces of DNA that can move between cells—others may have evolved from bacteria.
Viruses spread in many ways; plant viruses are often transmitted from plant to plant by insects that feed on sap, such as aphids, while animal viruses can be carried by blood-sucking insects. These disease-bearing organisms are known as vectors. Influenza viruses are spread by coughing and sneezing, and others such as norovirus, are transmitted by the faecal-oral route, when they contaminate hands, food or water. Rotaviruses are often spread by direct contact with infected children. HIV is one of several viruses that are transmitted through sex.
Not all viruses cause disease, as many viruses reproduce without causing any obvious harm to the infected organism. Some viruses such as HIV can cause life-long or chronic infections, and the viruses continue to replicate in the body despite the hosts' defence mechanisms. However, viral infections in animals usually cause an immune response, which can completely eliminate a virus. These immune responses can also be produced by vaccines that give lifelong immunity to a viral infection. Microorganisms such as bacteria also have defences against viral infection, such as restriction modification systems. Antibiotics have no effect on viruses, but antiviral drugs have been developed to treat life-threatening and more minor infections.
Viruses spread in many ways; plant viruses are often transmitted from plant to plant by insects that feed on sap, such as aphids, while animal viruses can be carried by blood-sucking insects. These disease-bearing organisms are known as vectors. Influenza viruses are spread by coughing and sneezing, and others such as norovirus, are transmitted by the faecal-oral route, when they contaminate hands, food or water. Rotaviruses are often spread by direct contact with infected children. HIV is one of several viruses that are transmitted through sex.
Not all viruses cause disease, as many viruses reproduce without causing any obvious harm to the infected organism. Some viruses such as HIV can cause life-long or chronic infections, and the viruses continue to replicate in the body despite the hosts' defence mechanisms. However, viral infections in animals usually cause an immune response, which can completely eliminate a virus. These immune responses can also be produced by vaccines that give lifelong immunity to a viral infection. Microorganisms such as bacteria also have defences against viral infection, such as restriction modification systems. Antibiotics have no effect on viruses, but antiviral drugs have been developed to treat life-threatening and more minor infections.
Common cold
Acute viral rhinopharyngitis, or acute coryza, usually known as the common cold, is a highly contagious, viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory system, primarily caused by picornaviruses (including rhinoviruses) or coronaviruses.
Common symptoms are sore throat, runny nose, nasal congestion, sneezing and coughing; sometimes accompanied by 'pink eye', muscle aches, fatigue, malaise, headaches, muscle weakness, uncontrollable shivering, and loss of appetite. Fever and extreme exhaustion are rare during a cold and are more usual in influenza.
The symptoms of a cold usually resolve after about one week, but can last up to two. Symptoms may be more severe in infants and young children. Although the disease is generally mild and self-limiting, patients with common colds often seek professional medical help, use over-the-counter drugs, and may miss school or work days. The annual cumulative societal cost of the common cold in developed countries is considerable in terms of money spent on remedies, and hours of lost productivity.
There are no antiviral drugs approved to treat or cure the infection; all medications used are palliative and treat symptoms only. Though some alternative treatments such as Vitamin C megadosage, echinacea, and zinc have been proposed, none of them have been shown to decrease the duration of the illness, and thus none of them are approved by the Food and Drug Administration or European Medicines Agency. To prevent infection, washing or disinfecting hands has been found effective, as this minimizes person-to-person transmission of the virus.
Common symptoms are sore throat, runny nose, nasal congestion, sneezing and coughing; sometimes accompanied by 'pink eye', muscle aches, fatigue, malaise, headaches, muscle weakness, uncontrollable shivering, and loss of appetite. Fever and extreme exhaustion are rare during a cold and are more usual in influenza.
The symptoms of a cold usually resolve after about one week, but can last up to two. Symptoms may be more severe in infants and young children. Although the disease is generally mild and self-limiting, patients with common colds often seek professional medical help, use over-the-counter drugs, and may miss school or work days. The annual cumulative societal cost of the common cold in developed countries is considerable in terms of money spent on remedies, and hours of lost productivity.
There are no antiviral drugs approved to treat or cure the infection; all medications used are palliative and treat symptoms only. Though some alternative treatments such as Vitamin C megadosage, echinacea, and zinc have been proposed, none of them have been shown to decrease the duration of the illness, and thus none of them are approved by the Food and Drug Administration or European Medicines Agency. To prevent infection, washing or disinfecting hands has been found effective, as this minimizes person-to-person transmission of the virus.
Design pattern
In software engineering, a design pattern is a general reusable solution to a commonly occurring problem in software design. A design pattern is not a finished design that can be transformed directly into code. It is a description or template for how to solve a problem that can be used in many different situations. Object-oriented design patterns typically show relationships and interactions between classes or objects, without specifying the final application classes or objects that are involved. Algorithms are not thought of as design patterns, since they solve computational problems rather than design problems.
Not all software patterns are design patterns. Design patterns deal specifically with problems at the level of software design. Other kinds of patterns, such as architectural patterns, describe problems and solutions that have alternative scopes.
A design pattern in architecture and computer science is a formal way of documenting a solution to a design problem in a particular field of expertise. The idea was introduced by the architect Christopher Alexander in the field of architecture, and has been adapted for various other disciplines, including computer science.
An organized collection of design patterns that relate to a particular field is called a pattern language.
Not all software patterns are design patterns. Design patterns deal specifically with problems at the level of software design. Other kinds of patterns, such as architectural patterns, describe problems and solutions that have alternative scopes.
A design pattern in architecture and computer science is a formal way of documenting a solution to a design problem in a particular field of expertise. The idea was introduced by the architect Christopher Alexander in the field of architecture, and has been adapted for various other disciplines, including computer science.
An organized collection of design patterns that relate to a particular field is called a pattern language.
SF6 Circuit Breaker
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) is an inert, heavy gas having good dielectric and arc extinguishing properties. The dielectric strength of the gas increases with pressure and is more than of dielectric strength of oil at 3 kg/cm2. SF6 is now being widely used in electrical equipment like high voltage metal enclosed cables; high voltage metal clad switchgear, capacitors, circuit breakers, current transformers, bushings, etc. The gas is liquefied at certain low temperature, liquefaction temperature increases with pressure.
Sulphur hexafluoride gas is prepared by burning coarsely crushed roll sulphur in the fluorine gas, in a steel box, provided with staggered horizontal shelves, each bearing about 4 kg of sulphur. The steel box is made gas tight. The gas thus obtained contains other fluorides such as S2F10, SF4 and must be purified further SF6 gas generally supplier by chemical firms. The cost of gas is low if manufactured in large scale.
During the arcing period SF6 gas is blown axially along the arc. The gas removes the heat from the arc by axial convection and radial dissipation. As a result, the arc diameter reduces during the decreasing mode of the current wave. The diameter becomes small during the current zero and the arc is extinguished.
Due to its electronegativity, and low arc time constant, the SF6 gas regains its dielectric strength rapidly after the current zero, the rate of rise of dielectric strength is very high and the time constant is very small.
Sulphur hexafluoride gas is prepared by burning coarsely crushed roll sulphur in the fluorine gas, in a steel box, provided with staggered horizontal shelves, each bearing about 4 kg of sulphur. The steel box is made gas tight. The gas thus obtained contains other fluorides such as S2F10, SF4 and must be purified further SF6 gas generally supplier by chemical firms. The cost of gas is low if manufactured in large scale.
During the arcing period SF6 gas is blown axially along the arc. The gas removes the heat from the arc by axial convection and radial dissipation. As a result, the arc diameter reduces during the decreasing mode of the current wave. The diameter becomes small during the current zero and the arc is extinguished.
Due to its electronegativity, and low arc time constant, the SF6 gas regains its dielectric strength rapidly after the current zero, the rate of rise of dielectric strength is very high and the time constant is very small.
Mobile Technology
The GSM was originated in Europe (Global System for Mobile) in the year 1990 and gained world wide popularity because of its modern network features which are available to the individual mobile phone user. CDMA or code division multiple access was developed by Qualcomm Inc. and it became an international standard in 1995.
As you know the mobile personal communication systems uses microwave frequencies above 800MHz for their transmission and reception purposes. They all are operating in some predefined or pre allocated frequency bands according to the international standards.
Thus CDMA is one access technology which cell phones uses to transmit and receive data. You can understand the meaning of FDMA, TDMA and CDMA eazily by just noting the word meaning for ezch letter. That is FDMA puts each call on a separate frequency and TDMA assigns each call a certain portion of time on a designated frequency for the above mentioned purpose. But CDMA gives a unique code to each call and spreads it over the available frequencies.
All these are multiple access systems because more than one user can use the specified CELL (not cell phone!) at a time. But GSM or Global System for Mobile uses the above mentioned TDMA ( Time Division Multiple Access ) for mobile communication purposes ! In other words GSM is a global standard based on TDMA and a very popular one in the entire Europe, Middle East, Asia and Africa and not an access code as CDMA but one global standard.( Remember it always....CDMA vs GSM is really misleading! it is CDMA vs TDMA..!)
As you know the mobile personal communication systems uses microwave frequencies above 800MHz for their transmission and reception purposes. They all are operating in some predefined or pre allocated frequency bands according to the international standards.
Thus CDMA is one access technology which cell phones uses to transmit and receive data. You can understand the meaning of FDMA, TDMA and CDMA eazily by just noting the word meaning for ezch letter. That is FDMA puts each call on a separate frequency and TDMA assigns each call a certain portion of time on a designated frequency for the above mentioned purpose. But CDMA gives a unique code to each call and spreads it over the available frequencies.
All these are multiple access systems because more than one user can use the specified CELL (not cell phone!) at a time. But GSM or Global System for Mobile uses the above mentioned TDMA ( Time Division Multiple Access ) for mobile communication purposes ! In other words GSM is a global standard based on TDMA and a very popular one in the entire Europe, Middle East, Asia and Africa and not an access code as CDMA but one global standard.( Remember it always....CDMA vs GSM is really misleading! it is CDMA vs TDMA..!)
Population Control
Population control is the practice of limiting population increase, usually by reducing the birth rate. The practice has sometimes been voluntary, as a response to poverty, environmental concerns, or out of religious ideology, but in some times and places it has been socially mandated.
This is generally conducted to improve quality of life for a society or as a solution to overpopulation. While population control can involve measures that improve people's lives, giving them greater control of their reproduction, some programs have exposed them to exploitation.
The population control movement was active throughout the 1960s and 1970s driving many reproductive health and family planning programs. In the 1980s tension grew between population control advocates and feminist women's health activists who advance women's reproductive rights as part of a human rights-based approach. Growing opposition to the narrow population control focus led to a significant change in population policies in the early 1990s.
The one-child policy is the population control policy of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The Chinese government refers to it under the official translation of family planning policy. It officially restricts the number of children married urban couples can have to one, although it allows exemptions for several cases, including rural couples, ethnic minorities, and parents without any siblings themselves. A spokesperson of the Committee on the One-Child Policy has said that approximately 35.9% of China's population is currently subject to the one-child restriction. The policy does not apply to the Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macao.
This is generally conducted to improve quality of life for a society or as a solution to overpopulation. While population control can involve measures that improve people's lives, giving them greater control of their reproduction, some programs have exposed them to exploitation.
The population control movement was active throughout the 1960s and 1970s driving many reproductive health and family planning programs. In the 1980s tension grew between population control advocates and feminist women's health activists who advance women's reproductive rights as part of a human rights-based approach. Growing opposition to the narrow population control focus led to a significant change in population policies in the early 1990s.
The one-child policy is the population control policy of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The Chinese government refers to it under the official translation of family planning policy. It officially restricts the number of children married urban couples can have to one, although it allows exemptions for several cases, including rural couples, ethnic minorities, and parents without any siblings themselves. A spokesperson of the Committee on the One-Child Policy has said that approximately 35.9% of China's population is currently subject to the one-child restriction. The policy does not apply to the Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macao.
Forest in Australia
Australia has many forests of importance due to significant features, despite being one of the driest continents.
There are 457 forest communities distributed across Australia. These have been grouped into the following seven native forest types which are characterised by dominant species and the structure of the forest
Plantation forests (softwood and some hardwood) have been defined as an eighth group which covers trees planted for commercial use.
The majority of Australia's trees are hardwoods, typically eucalypts, rather than softwoods like pine. While softwoods dominate some native forests, their total area is judged insufficient to constitute a major forest type in Australia's National Forest Inventory.
Tropical rainforest near Daintree, Queensland. At around 1200 square kilometers the Daintree is Australia's largest contiguous area of rainforest. Contains 30% of frog, marsupial and reptile species in Australia, and 65% of Australia's bat and butterfly species. 20% of bird species in the country can be found in this area including the threatened Cassowary. Added to the World Heritage List in 1988.
There are 457 forest communities distributed across Australia. These have been grouped into the following seven native forest types which are characterised by dominant species and the structure of the forest
Plantation forests (softwood and some hardwood) have been defined as an eighth group which covers trees planted for commercial use.
The majority of Australia's trees are hardwoods, typically eucalypts, rather than softwoods like pine. While softwoods dominate some native forests, their total area is judged insufficient to constitute a major forest type in Australia's National Forest Inventory.
Tropical rainforest near Daintree, Queensland. At around 1200 square kilometers the Daintree is Australia's largest contiguous area of rainforest. Contains 30% of frog, marsupial and reptile species in Australia, and 65% of Australia's bat and butterfly species. 20% of bird species in the country can be found in this area including the threatened Cassowary. Added to the World Heritage List in 1988.
Financial news
The field of finance refers to the concepts of time, money and risk and how they are interrelated. Banks are the main facilitators of funding through the provision of credit, although private equity, mutual funds, hedge funds, and other organizations have become important. Financial assets, known as investments, are financially managed with careful attention to financial risk management to control financial risk. Financial inrstruments allow many forms of securitized assets to be traded on securities exchanges such as stock exchanges, including debt such as bonds as well as equity in publicly-traded corporations.
An entity whose income exceeds its expenditure can lend or invest the excess income. On the other hand, an entity whose income is less than its expenditure can raise capital by borrowing or selling equity claims, decreasing its expenses, or increasing its income. The lender can find a borrower, a financial intermediary such as a bank, or buy notes or bonds in the bond market. The lender receives interest, the borrower pays a higher interest than the lender receives, and the financial intermediary pockets the difference.
A bank aggregates the activities of many borrowers and lenders. A bank accepts deposits from lenders, on which it pays the interest. The bank then lends these deposits to borrowers. Banks allow borrowers and lenders, of different sizes, to coordinate their activity. Banks are thus compensators of money flows in space.
An entity whose income exceeds its expenditure can lend or invest the excess income. On the other hand, an entity whose income is less than its expenditure can raise capital by borrowing or selling equity claims, decreasing its expenses, or increasing its income. The lender can find a borrower, a financial intermediary such as a bank, or buy notes or bonds in the bond market. The lender receives interest, the borrower pays a higher interest than the lender receives, and the financial intermediary pockets the difference.
A bank aggregates the activities of many borrowers and lenders. A bank accepts deposits from lenders, on which it pays the interest. The bank then lends these deposits to borrowers. Banks allow borrowers and lenders, of different sizes, to coordinate their activity. Banks are thus compensators of money flows in space.
Electronics world
Our mission is to bring the best home entertainment and control system to your household. We will work with you as your reliable and superior provider for consultation, design and installation.
We pay close attention to details during every step of the process, ensuring a system that encompasses all of your goals within the established budget.
We also provide the necessary education of the latest trends and new technologies to make sure that all of your needs, both present and future, are accounted for.
Be it for one room or for the entire home, we can implement cutting-edge technology to fulfill your every desire
We pay close attention to details during every step of the process, ensuring a system that encompasses all of your goals within the established budget.
We also provide the necessary education of the latest trends and new technologies to make sure that all of your needs, both present and future, are accounted for.
Be it for one room or for the entire home, we can implement cutting-edge technology to fulfill your every desire
Astrology
You are kind and generous especially where animals or children are concerned. You may not be demonstrative but will not walk away from existing relationships if there is dispute. You have a strong sense of duty and your family is important for you. You may lay down your life for a charitable cause, but you may not budge an inch in a fight, and withdraw into your protective shell for a prolonged period of time. But you can ultimately forget and forgive.
You are a born dreamer and a just person. Key words in your life are beauty and harmony. You are perhaps as beautiful inside as your appearance. You love beautiful things of life and often live in a dream world. You are a true romantic with equal share of passion thrown into intimate relationship. There is always a sense of right and wrong and you do not like unfair means. You are demonstrative and your life partner may have very little to complain about in that respect.
You are a born dreamer and a just person. Key words in your life are beauty and harmony. You are perhaps as beautiful inside as your appearance. You love beautiful things of life and often live in a dream world. You are a true romantic with equal share of passion thrown into intimate relationship. There is always a sense of right and wrong and you do not like unfair means. You are demonstrative and your life partner may have very little to complain about in that respect.
You are a born dreamer and a just person. Key words in your life are beauty and harmony. You are perhaps as beautiful inside as your appearance. You love beautiful things of life and often live in a dream world. You are a true romantic with equal share of passion thrown into intimate relationship. There is always a sense of right and wrong and you do not like unfair means. You are demonstrative and your life partner may have very little to complain about in that respect.
You are a born dreamer and a just person. Key words in your life are beauty and harmony. You are perhaps as beautiful inside as your appearance. You love beautiful things of life and often live in a dream world. You are a true romantic with equal share of passion thrown into intimate relationship. There is always a sense of right and wrong and you do not like unfair means. You are demonstrative and your life partner may have very little to complain about in that respect.
Paramedical job
A paramedic is a medical professional, usually a member of the emergency medical services, who primarily provides pre-hospital advanced medical and trauma care. A paramedic is charged with providing emergency on-scene treatment, crisis intervention, life-saving stabilization and transport of ill or injured patients to definitive emergency medical and surgical treatment facilities, such as hospitals and trauma centers.
The use of the specific term paramedic varies by jurisdiction, and in some places is used to refer to any member of an ambulance crew. In countries such as Canada and South Africa, the term paramedic is used as the job title for all EMS personnel, who are then distinguished by the terms primary or basic (e.g. Primary Care Paramedic) intermediate, or advanced (e.g. Advanced Care Paramedic). This approach may be completely appropriate in such jurisdictions, where primary care staff receive more than double the classroom and clinical training of an EMT, and in fact more than those in some jurisdictions permitted by law to call themselves paramedics.
In countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom, the use of the word paramedic is restricted by law, and the person claiming the title must have passed a specific set of examinations and clinical placements, and hold a valid registration, certification, or license with a governing body. Even in countries where the law restricts the title, lay persons may incorrectly refer to all emergency medical personnel as 'paramedics', even if they officially hold a different qualification, such as emergency medical technician-basic.
The term paramedic comes from para- (auxiliary) +medical, meaning "related to medicine in an auxiliary capacity," the military term paramedic, meaning a parachuting medical corpsmen, came later.
The use of the specific term paramedic varies by jurisdiction, and in some places is used to refer to any member of an ambulance crew. In countries such as Canada and South Africa, the term paramedic is used as the job title for all EMS personnel, who are then distinguished by the terms primary or basic (e.g. Primary Care Paramedic) intermediate, or advanced (e.g. Advanced Care Paramedic). This approach may be completely appropriate in such jurisdictions, where primary care staff receive more than double the classroom and clinical training of an EMT, and in fact more than those in some jurisdictions permitted by law to call themselves paramedics.
In countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom, the use of the word paramedic is restricted by law, and the person claiming the title must have passed a specific set of examinations and clinical placements, and hold a valid registration, certification, or license with a governing body. Even in countries where the law restricts the title, lay persons may incorrectly refer to all emergency medical personnel as 'paramedics', even if they officially hold a different qualification, such as emergency medical technician-basic.
The term paramedic comes from para- (auxiliary) +medical, meaning "related to medicine in an auxiliary capacity," the military term paramedic, meaning a parachuting medical corpsmen, came later.
Online jobs
India’s largest job site brings to you the Career Services section which will help you enhance your job search and provide you an edge over other applicants for the job.We have identified the most prevalent job search problems faced by the candidates and provide the best solution for the same by our resume writing, resume marketing and online career guidance services. Our services, backed by exhaustive study and faculty are designed as per your career goals and aim at helping you achieve the job you deserve.
During the last quarter of 2005, "banking" was the single most popular keyword searched for by job seekers online, while other related keywords included insurance, finance, risk, compliance, Takaful and "private equity". Overall one in every eight online job searches was related to the banking sector, according to GulfTalent.com. The news comes against a background of rising salaries in the Gulf's financial sector.
Earlier research on compensation trends released by GulfTalent.com last September suggested that banking and finance sector salaries had risen at an average rate of 9 per cent over the previous year, the highest increase among all sectors in the Gulf. Demand from employers appears equally strong with several banks projecting high growth.
During the last quarter of 2005, "banking" was the single most popular keyword searched for by job seekers online, while other related keywords included insurance, finance, risk, compliance, Takaful and "private equity". Overall one in every eight online job searches was related to the banking sector, according to GulfTalent.com. The news comes against a background of rising salaries in the Gulf's financial sector.
Earlier research on compensation trends released by GulfTalent.com last September suggested that banking and finance sector salaries had risen at an average rate of 9 per cent over the previous year, the highest increase among all sectors in the Gulf. Demand from employers appears equally strong with several banks projecting high growth.
Snakes
Snakes are elongate legless carrnivorous reptiles of the suborder Serpentes that can be distinguished from legless lizards by their lack of eyelids and external ears. Like all squamates, snakes are ectothermic amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales. Like lizards, from which they evolved, they have loosely articulated skulls, and most can dislocate their lower jaw in order to swallow prey much larger than their own head. In order to accommodate their narrow bodies, snakes' paired organs (such as kidneys) appear one in front of the other instead of side by side, and they have only one functional lung. Some species retain a pelvic girdle with a pair of vestigial claws on either side of the cloacal.
Living snakes are found on every continent except Antarctica. Fifteen families are currently recognized comprising 456 genera and over 2,900 species. They range in size from the tiny, 10 cm long thread snake to pythons and anacondas of up to 7.6 m (25 ft) in length. The recently discovered fossil Titan boa was 13 m or 43 ft long. Snakes are thought to have evolved from either burrowing or aquatic lizards during the Cretaceous period (c 150 Ma). The diversity of modern snakes appeared during the Paleocene period (c 66 to 56 Ma).
Most species are non-venomous and those that have venom use it primarily to kill and subdue prey rather than for self-defense. Some possess venom potent enough to cause painful injury or death to humans.
Living snakes are found on every continent except Antarctica. Fifteen families are currently recognized comprising 456 genera and over 2,900 species. They range in size from the tiny, 10 cm long thread snake to pythons and anacondas of up to 7.6 m (25 ft) in length. The recently discovered fossil Titan boa was 13 m or 43 ft long. Snakes are thought to have evolved from either burrowing or aquatic lizards during the Cretaceous period (c 150 Ma). The diversity of modern snakes appeared during the Paleocene period (c 66 to 56 Ma).
Most species are non-venomous and those that have venom use it primarily to kill and subdue prey rather than for self-defense. Some possess venom potent enough to cause painful injury or death to humans.
Culture development
Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate") is difficult to define. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. However, the word "culture" is most commonly used in three basic senses:
Excellence of taste in the fine arts and humanities. An integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends upon the capacity for symbolic thought and social learning. The set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution, organization or group.
When the concept first emerged in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Europe, it connoted a process of cultivation or improvement, as in agriculture or horticulture. In the nineteenth century, it came to refer first to the betterment or refinement of the individual, especially through education, and then to the fulfillment of national aspirations or ideals. In the mid-nineteenth century, some scientists used the term "culture" to refer to a universal human capacity.
In the twentieth century, "culture" emerged as a concept central to anthropology, encompassing all human phenomena that are not purely results of human genetics. Specifically, the term "culture" in American anthropology had two meanings: (1) the evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbols, and to act imaginatively and creatively; and (2) the distinct ways that people living in different parts of the world classified and represented their experiences, and acted creatively. Following World War II, the term became important, albeit with different meanings, in other disciplines such as sociology, cultural studies, organizational psychology and management studies.
Excellence of taste in the fine arts and humanities. An integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends upon the capacity for symbolic thought and social learning. The set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution, organization or group.
When the concept first emerged in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Europe, it connoted a process of cultivation or improvement, as in agriculture or horticulture. In the nineteenth century, it came to refer first to the betterment or refinement of the individual, especially through education, and then to the fulfillment of national aspirations or ideals. In the mid-nineteenth century, some scientists used the term "culture" to refer to a universal human capacity.
In the twentieth century, "culture" emerged as a concept central to anthropology, encompassing all human phenomena that are not purely results of human genetics. Specifically, the term "culture" in American anthropology had two meanings: (1) the evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbols, and to act imaginatively and creatively; and (2) the distinct ways that people living in different parts of the world classified and represented their experiences, and acted creatively. Following World War II, the term became important, albeit with different meanings, in other disciplines such as sociology, cultural studies, organizational psychology and management studies.
Higher studies in USA
United States arguably is the most evolved economy of the world. It is no surprise that in the modern context it has the most evolved legal system as well. The same may be debated as it would not have the legal history that the UK may have. However, the business driven approach has made it the most practical / market oriented legal system. India being a common law country may be better aligned to the UK in terms of similarities of the legal systems; however when it comes to the market and the business US is leading the way in terms of evolution of legislation. Thus, it may not be a bad idea to plan US based legal education if your focus is business and economy driven legal career which primarily is in the advisory role and has less to do with litigation.
The United States legal system follows the federal approach. The central or the national government has specific set of enumerated powers. Simultaneously the fifty states retain their sovereign, autonomy and authority. Both the national and state governments are divided into executive, legislative and judicial functions. Written constitutions at both federal and state levels form a system of separation of powers creating checks and balances between the governments.
Unlike most other countries, in the United States, the formal study of law (leading to becoming a lawyer eligible to practice in a court of law in the US) is only available at the postgraduate level. Thus to be eligible to attend a law school in the US, a students must have had a prior undergraduate degree. The two types of degrees offered are the Juris Doctor (JD) and the Masters Degree in Law (LLM).
While JD is the primary degree required to be able to practice in the US Courts LLM is an additional degree meant for already qualified lawyers who wish to pursue higher studies in their specific area of interest. The JD programme requires about three years of studies at a law school after the successful completion of the undergraduate degree.
However, there exist other programmes that involve study of law; which are available to students at the undergraduate level. However, these law-related degrees do not lead to becoming a qualified lawyer as they may not be ABA accredited. ABA stands for American Bar Association It gives accreditation to the Law Schools in US. The most important activities for ABA are setting of academic standards for law schools and the formulation of model ethical codes related to the legal profession.
The ABA has approved nearly 200 schools in the US for imparting legal education. Only when a student obtains a JD Degree from an ABA accredited law school, he or she becomes eligible to practice in a court of law in the United States.
Mines Based Jobs
Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth, usually from an ore body, vein or (coal) seam. Materials recovered by mining include base metals, precious metals, iron, uranium, coal, diamonds, limestone, oil shale, rock salt and potash. Any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, or created artificially in a laboratory or factory, is usually mined. Mining in a wider sense comprises extraction of any non-renewable resource (e.g., petroleum, natural gas, or even water).
Mining of stone and metal has been done since pre-historic times. Modern mining processes involve prospecting for ore bodies, analysis of the profit potential of a proposed mine, extraction of the desired materials and finally reclamation of the land to prepare it for other uses once the mine is closed.
The nature of mining processes creates a potential negative impact on the environment both during the mining operations and for years after the mine is closed. This impact has led to most of the world's nations adopting regulations to moderate the negative effects of mining operations. Safety has long been a concern as well, though modern practices have improved safety in mines significantly. Mining today is able to profitably and safely recover minerals with little negative impact to the environment.
Since the beginning of civilization people have used stone, ceramics and, later, metals found on or close to the Earth's surface. These were used to manufacture early tools and weapons, for example, high quality flint found in northern France and southern England were used to create flint tools. Flint mines have been found in chalk areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts and galleries. The mines at Grimes Graves are especially famous, and like most other flint mines, are Neolithic in origin (ca 4000 BC-ca 3000 BC). Other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Lansdale axe industry based in the English Lake District.
Mining of stone and metal has been done since pre-historic times. Modern mining processes involve prospecting for ore bodies, analysis of the profit potential of a proposed mine, extraction of the desired materials and finally reclamation of the land to prepare it for other uses once the mine is closed.
The nature of mining processes creates a potential negative impact on the environment both during the mining operations and for years after the mine is closed. This impact has led to most of the world's nations adopting regulations to moderate the negative effects of mining operations. Safety has long been a concern as well, though modern practices have improved safety in mines significantly. Mining today is able to profitably and safely recover minerals with little negative impact to the environment.
Since the beginning of civilization people have used stone, ceramics and, later, metals found on or close to the Earth's surface. These were used to manufacture early tools and weapons, for example, high quality flint found in northern France and southern England were used to create flint tools. Flint mines have been found in chalk areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts and galleries. The mines at Grimes Graves are especially famous, and like most other flint mines, are Neolithic in origin (ca 4000 BC-ca 3000 BC). Other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Lansdale axe industry based in the English Lake District.
Environmental Control
The Environmental Control System of an airliner provides air supply, thermal control and cabin pressurization for the passengers and crew. Avionics cooling, smoke detection, and fire suppression are also commonly considered part of the Environmental Control System.
The systems described below are specific to current production Boeing airliners, although the details are essentially identical for passenger jets from Airbus and other companies. An exception was Concorde which had a supplementary air supply system fitted due to the higher altitudes at which it flew, and also the slightly higher cabin pressure it employed.
On most jetliners, air is supplied to the ECS by being "bled" from a compressor stage of each turbine engine, upstream of the combustor. The temperature and pressure of this "bleed air" varies widely depending upon which compressor stage and the RPM of the engine.
A "Pressure Regulating Shutoff Valve" (PRSOV) restricts the flow as necessary to maintain the desired pressure for downstream systems. This flow restriction results in efficiency losses. To reduce the amount of restriction required, and thereby increase efficiency, air is commonly drawn from two bleed ports.
When the engine is at low thrust, the air is drawn from the "High Pressure Bleed Port." As thrust is increased, the pressure from this port rises until "crossover," where the "High Pressure Shutoff Valve" (HPSOV) closes and air is thereafter drawn from the "Low Pressure Bleed Port."
The systems described below are specific to current production Boeing airliners, although the details are essentially identical for passenger jets from Airbus and other companies. An exception was Concorde which had a supplementary air supply system fitted due to the higher altitudes at which it flew, and also the slightly higher cabin pressure it employed.
On most jetliners, air is supplied to the ECS by being "bled" from a compressor stage of each turbine engine, upstream of the combustor. The temperature and pressure of this "bleed air" varies widely depending upon which compressor stage and the RPM of the engine.
A "Pressure Regulating Shutoff Valve" (PRSOV) restricts the flow as necessary to maintain the desired pressure for downstream systems. This flow restriction results in efficiency losses. To reduce the amount of restriction required, and thereby increase efficiency, air is commonly drawn from two bleed ports.
When the engine is at low thrust, the air is drawn from the "High Pressure Bleed Port." As thrust is increased, the pressure from this port rises until "crossover," where the "High Pressure Shutoff Valve" (HPSOV) closes and air is thereafter drawn from the "Low Pressure Bleed Port."
Aeronautical Job
In 1908 the Aeronautical Division, at the intercession of President Theodore Roosevelt in the acquisition process, purchased a nonrigid dirigible from Thomas Scott Baldwin for $6,750, and an airplane from the Wright Brothers for $25,000. Specification No. 486 required both types of airships be able to carry two persons. The dirigible had to be able to carry a load of 450 pounds and reach a speed of 20 miles per hour (mph) while the airplane's requirements were a load of 350 pounds, a speed of 40 mph, and a flying distance of at least 125 miles.
1st Lt. Frank Lahm and Orville Wright in the first U.S. Army airplane, July 27, 1909. The dirigible was delivered first, in July 1908, after Baldwin submitted an extremely low bid to ensure receiving the contract ($25,000 had been budgeted). Baldwin and Glenn Curtiss flew the test trials and met all specifications except speed, which was just under the requirement. During August, Baldwin trained three officer candidates to fly the dirigible: First lieutenants Thomas E. Selfridge, Field Artillery; Benjamin D. Folios, Infantry; and Captain Frank P. Lahm, Cavalry. Foulois was trained as the first dirigible pilot and prepared to move the ship from Fort Omaha to St. Joseph, Missouri, for a state fair exhibition. However the first solo ascent in the dirigible, and the first flight solely by army pilots, did not occur until May 26, 1909.
The Wright Brothers, who had been asking $100,000 for their airplane, then agreed to sell an airplane satisfying the requirements for $25,000 (they also received a $5,000 bonus for exceeding the speed requirement). The airplane was delivered to Fort Myer, Virginia, for trials. The first acceptance flight of the airplane was made on September 3, 1908, at Fort Myer, with Orville at the controls. Selfridge and Lahm were named official observers of the trials of the Wright aeroplane for September 1908. Both Lahm and Major Squier made acceptance flights as observers, and on September 13 Wright kept the airplane aloft for an hour and ten minutes. On September 17 Selfridge was flying as observer with Orville Wright when at 150 feet a propeller broke severing a wire to the rudder which caused the plane to crash. Wright was injured and Selfridge was killed, the first military airplane casualty.
Orville Wright, along with Wilbur this time, returned to Fort Myer in June 1909 with a new though smaller & faster airplane. The brothers spent the better part of the month fine tuning the airplane and warming up for the final tests and also bad flying weather hampered much of July. For this year's acceptance trials both Lahm & Foulois(Selfridge had been killed the previous year) were named as official observers with the trials starting on July 27, 1909. Lahm flew with Wright on July 27. On July 30, 1909, Foulois & Wright in a final acceptance of the Wright aeroplane made a cross country flight of 10 miles to Alexandria, Virginia and back to Fort Myer. This flight broke all of the existing records for speed, duration with a passenger and altitude with a passenger. Pleased with the performance of this airplane the Army purchased it awarding the Wrights 5,000 dollars for each mile achieved over 40mph. The plane's best speed had been 45mph.
Exhibition
Is an International Exhibition on Islam. The exhibition targets both the muslim and the non-muslim community alike. The primary objective of the exhibition is to get the message of Islam across to the masses. It also ventures to clarify the misconception people have on Islam and its tenets. The program is as a result of the efforts of Salafi/Islahi Kerala which are the organisations dedicated in spreading Islam as understood by the pious predecessors under Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen. This exhibit would include live models/charts/Q&A Sessions/Speeches of Scholars etc
Art exhibitions are traditionally the space in which art objects (in the most general sense) meet an audience. The exhibit is universally understood to be for some temporary period unless, as is rarely true, it is stated to be a "permanent exhibition". In American English, they may be called "exhibit", "exposition" (the French word) or "show". In UK English, they are always called "exhibitions" or "shows", and an individual item in the show is an "exhibit".
Such expositions may present pictures, drawings, video, sound, installation, performance, interactive art or sculptures by individual artists, groups of artists or collections of a specific form of art. The art works may be presented in museums, art halls, art clubs or private art galleries, or at some place the principal business of which is not the display or sale of art, such as a coffeehouse.
An important distinction is noted between those exhibits where some or all of the works are for sale, normally in private art galleries, and those where they are not. Sometimes the event is organized on a specific occasion, like a birthday, anniversary or commemoration.
Art exhibitions are traditionally the space in which art objects (in the most general sense) meet an audience. The exhibit is universally understood to be for some temporary period unless, as is rarely true, it is stated to be a "permanent exhibition". In American English, they may be called "exhibit", "exposition" (the French word) or "show". In UK English, they are always called "exhibitions" or "shows", and an individual item in the show is an "exhibit".
Such expositions may present pictures, drawings, video, sound, installation, performance, interactive art or sculptures by individual artists, groups of artists or collections of a specific form of art. The art works may be presented in museums, art halls, art clubs or private art galleries, or at some place the principal business of which is not the display or sale of art, such as a coffeehouse.
An important distinction is noted between those exhibits where some or all of the works are for sale, normally in private art galleries, and those where they are not. Sometimes the event is organized on a specific occasion, like a birthday, anniversary or commemoration.
Tamilnadu Tourism
Nestling on the south eastern side of Indian territory, the beautiful and culturally rich Tamil Nadu is bounded on the east by Bay of Bengal, in the south by the Indian ocean, in the west by the states of Kerala and Karnataka and in the North by Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
A stroll through the clouds afloat, collect a handful of natural pleasure as a memoir, open the hands and they dissolve into oblivion. This pleasurable dream is not impossible on a hill station with the pleasant climate. With their dreamy and rejuvenating atmospheres, Ooty on the Nilgiri's and Kodaikanal on the Palani Hills in Tamil Nadu are two favorite tourist spots.
Nilgiri (meaning 'blue mountain') hills at the concurrence of the Eastern and Western Ghats are enveloped by the blue haze of the clouds, making their name justified. Udhagamandalam, famously known as Ooty, Coonoor and Kotagiri hill stations, are all part of the lofty Nilgiri's. For its beauty, holiday options and reachability, Ooty is called the 'Queen of hill stations'.
Adventure is undoubtedly one of the best activities to indulge in, in Tamil Nadu hill stations. Trekking, Hang-Gliding, fishing and Golf are some of the recreation facilities that have captured the imaginations of the tourists here. 2100m above sea level on the enchanting Palani hills, 120 km form Madurai, is another splendid hill station, Kodaikanal.
The place is filled with the hues of Kurinji plant, which gives purple flowers once in twelve years. The main attraction of the hill station is the man- made Kodai Lake which has paddle-boating facilities. Just round the corner is Briyant's park. Behold the celestial family from the solar observatory and the two telescope houses of Kodaikanal.
A stroll through the clouds afloat, collect a handful of natural pleasure as a memoir, open the hands and they dissolve into oblivion. This pleasurable dream is not impossible on a hill station with the pleasant climate. With their dreamy and rejuvenating atmospheres, Ooty on the Nilgiri's and Kodaikanal on the Palani Hills in Tamil Nadu are two favorite tourist spots.
Nilgiri (meaning 'blue mountain') hills at the concurrence of the Eastern and Western Ghats are enveloped by the blue haze of the clouds, making their name justified. Udhagamandalam, famously known as Ooty, Coonoor and Kotagiri hill stations, are all part of the lofty Nilgiri's. For its beauty, holiday options and reachability, Ooty is called the 'Queen of hill stations'.
Adventure is undoubtedly one of the best activities to indulge in, in Tamil Nadu hill stations. Trekking, Hang-Gliding, fishing and Golf are some of the recreation facilities that have captured the imaginations of the tourists here. 2100m above sea level on the enchanting Palani hills, 120 km form Madurai, is another splendid hill station, Kodaikanal.
The place is filled with the hues of Kurinji plant, which gives purple flowers once in twelve years. The main attraction of the hill station is the man- made Kodai Lake which has paddle-boating facilities. Just round the corner is Briyant's park. Behold the celestial family from the solar observatory and the two telescope houses of Kodaikanal.
Research Technology
The Indiana Initiative for Economic Development (IIED) is an economic development program which makes advanced computing technology and expertise available at no cost to companies whose proposals advance the Indiana economy. The Initiative is a partnership among IBM, Indiana University, Purdue University, and the Indiana Economic Development Corporation (IEDC).
The mission of the High Performance Applications group is to help promote scholarly research through the use of high performance computing and communication environments. A sampling of HPA activities include: user support for IU faculty, staff and students who want to get started using our supercomputers, longer term 1-on-1 consulting, support for our NSF TeraGrid users, benchmarking new or upgraded systems, and (in the future) developing services that hide the complexity of using high performance applications.
A Web platform that allows scientists to share research modeling tools, presentations and experimental findings is the focus of a new partnership between Purdue and Indiana universities.
Purdue is launching the consortium for joint development of the platform, called HUBzero. Indiana University is the consortium's first new member. The HUBzero consortium is expected to attract universities from across North America in the coming months.
HUBzero provides a way to host simulation tools and other educational and research resources, making them as effortless to access as a Web page. It also gives researchers immediate access to national supercomputing resources via the TeraGrid.
The mission of the High Performance Applications group is to help promote scholarly research through the use of high performance computing and communication environments. A sampling of HPA activities include: user support for IU faculty, staff and students who want to get started using our supercomputers, longer term 1-on-1 consulting, support for our NSF TeraGrid users, benchmarking new or upgraded systems, and (in the future) developing services that hide the complexity of using high performance applications.
A Web platform that allows scientists to share research modeling tools, presentations and experimental findings is the focus of a new partnership between Purdue and Indiana universities.
Purdue is launching the consortium for joint development of the platform, called HUBzero. Indiana University is the consortium's first new member. The HUBzero consortium is expected to attract universities from across North America in the coming months.
HUBzero provides a way to host simulation tools and other educational and research resources, making them as effortless to access as a Web page. It also gives researchers immediate access to national supercomputing resources via the TeraGrid.
Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.
All circuit breakers have common features in their operation, although details vary substantially depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit breaker.
The circuit breaker must detect a fault condition; in low-voltage circuit breakers this is usually done within the breaker enclosure. Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually arranged with pilot devices to sense a fault current and to operate the trip opening mechanism. The trip solenoid that releases the latch is usually energized by a separate battery, although some high-voltage circuit breakers are self-contained with current transformers, protection relays, and an internal control power source.
Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the circuit; some mechanically-stored energy (using something such as springs or compressed air) contained within the breaker is used to separate the contacts, although some of the energy required may be obtained from the fault current itself. Small circuit breakers may be manually operated; larger units have solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs.
All circuit breakers have common features in their operation, although details vary substantially depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit breaker.
The circuit breaker must detect a fault condition; in low-voltage circuit breakers this is usually done within the breaker enclosure. Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually arranged with pilot devices to sense a fault current and to operate the trip opening mechanism. The trip solenoid that releases the latch is usually energized by a separate battery, although some high-voltage circuit breakers are self-contained with current transformers, protection relays, and an internal control power source.
Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the circuit; some mechanically-stored energy (using something such as springs or compressed air) contained within the breaker is used to separate the contacts, although some of the energy required may be obtained from the fault current itself. Small circuit breakers may be manually operated; larger units have solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs.
Crocodiles
A crocodile is any species belonging to the family Crocodylidae (sometimes classified instead as the subfamily Crocodylinae). The term can also be used more loosely to include all members of the order Crocodilians: i.e. the true crocodiles, the alligators and caimans (family Alligatoridae) and the gharials (family Gavialidae), or even the crocadile includes prehistoric crocodile relatives and ancestors.
Crocodiles are large aquatic reptiles that live throughout the tropics in Africa, Asia, the Americas and Australia. Crocodiles tend to congregate in freshwater habitats like rivers, lakes, wetlands and sometimes in brackish water. They feed mostly on vertebrates like fish, reptiles, and mammals, sometimes on invertebrates like mollusks and crustaceans, depending on species. They are an ancient lineage, and are believed to have changed little since the time of the dinosaurs. They are believed to be 200 million years old whereas dinosaurs became extinct 65 million years ago; crocodiles survived great extinction events.
There are several variant Greek forms of the word attested, including the later form (crocodeilos) found cited in many English reference works. In the Konia Greek of Roman times, crocodiilos and crocodeilos would have been pronounced identically, and either or both may be the source of the Latinized form crocodīlus used by the ancient Romans.
Crocodiilos/crocodeilos itself is described in reference sources as a corruption of crocè ("pebbly"), and driilos/dreilos supposedly meaning "worm" although attested only as "(man with circumcized) penis". It is unclear how well supported this analysis is. The meaning of crocè is explained as describing the skin texture of lizards (or crocodiles) in most sources, but is alternately claimed to refer to a supposed habit of (lizards or crocodiles) basking on pebbly ground.
The form crocodrillus is attested in Medieval Latin. It is not clear whether this is a medieval corruption or derives from alternate Greco-Latin forms (late Greek corcodrillos and corcodrillion are attested).
A (further) corrupted form cocodrille is found in Old French and was borrowed into Middle English as cocodril(le). The Modern English form crocodile was adapted directly from the Classical Latin crocodīlus in the 16th Century, replacing the earlier form.
Crocodiles are large aquatic reptiles that live throughout the tropics in Africa, Asia, the Americas and Australia. Crocodiles tend to congregate in freshwater habitats like rivers, lakes, wetlands and sometimes in brackish water. They feed mostly on vertebrates like fish, reptiles, and mammals, sometimes on invertebrates like mollusks and crustaceans, depending on species. They are an ancient lineage, and are believed to have changed little since the time of the dinosaurs. They are believed to be 200 million years old whereas dinosaurs became extinct 65 million years ago; crocodiles survived great extinction events.
There are several variant Greek forms of the word attested, including the later form (crocodeilos) found cited in many English reference works. In the Konia Greek of Roman times, crocodiilos and crocodeilos would have been pronounced identically, and either or both may be the source of the Latinized form crocodīlus used by the ancient Romans.
Crocodiilos/crocodeilos itself is described in reference sources as a corruption of crocè ("pebbly"), and driilos/dreilos supposedly meaning "worm" although attested only as "(man with circumcized) penis". It is unclear how well supported this analysis is. The meaning of crocè is explained as describing the skin texture of lizards (or crocodiles) in most sources, but is alternately claimed to refer to a supposed habit of (lizards or crocodiles) basking on pebbly ground.
The form crocodrillus is attested in Medieval Latin. It is not clear whether this is a medieval corruption or derives from alternate Greco-Latin forms (late Greek corcodrillos and corcodrillion are attested).
A (further) corrupted form cocodrille is found in Old French and was borrowed into Middle English as cocodril(le). The Modern English form crocodile was adapted directly from the Classical Latin crocodīlus in the 16th Century, replacing the earlier form.
African Monkey
The vervet monkeys or green monkeys are medium-sized primates from the family of Old World monkeys. There are six species currently recognized, although some classify them all as a single species with numerous subspecies. Either way, they make up the entirety of the genus Chlorocebus.
These monkeys are found only in sub-Saharan Africa; their range extends from Senegal and Ethiopia down to South Africa. A small population, which were taken as pets by slavers and were transported with the enslaved Africans, are found in the Caribbean, on the islands of Barbados, Saint Kitts, Nevis, Anguilla, and Saint Maarten. A colony also exists in Broward County, Florida.
The dorsal fur of the vervet monkey varies by species from pale yellow through grey-green brown to dark brown, while the lower portion and the hair ring around the face is a whitish yellow. The face, hands, and feet are hairless and black, although their abdominal skin is bluish. Males have a blue scrotum and red penis. Vervet monkeys reach an adult size of from 40 to 43 cm for males and 34 to 39 cm for females, with a tail measuring 30 to 50 cm long. Males weigh from 4 to 4.5 kg and females weigh from 2.5 to 3.5 kg
Unlike the closely related guenons, vervets are not primarily forest dwellers, rather, they are semi-arboreal and semi-terrestrial, spending most of the day on the ground feeding and then sleeping at night in the trees. However they must drink each day and are dependent on water, so they are never far from rivers or lakes. Like most other members of the Cercopithecoidea superfamily, they have cheek pouches for storing food. They are diurnal, and are particularly active in the early morning and in the later afternoon or early evening.
These monkeys are found only in sub-Saharan Africa; their range extends from Senegal and Ethiopia down to South Africa. A small population, which were taken as pets by slavers and were transported with the enslaved Africans, are found in the Caribbean, on the islands of Barbados, Saint Kitts, Nevis, Anguilla, and Saint Maarten. A colony also exists in Broward County, Florida.
The dorsal fur of the vervet monkey varies by species from pale yellow through grey-green brown to dark brown, while the lower portion and the hair ring around the face is a whitish yellow. The face, hands, and feet are hairless and black, although their abdominal skin is bluish. Males have a blue scrotum and red penis. Vervet monkeys reach an adult size of from 40 to 43 cm for males and 34 to 39 cm for females, with a tail measuring 30 to 50 cm long. Males weigh from 4 to 4.5 kg and females weigh from 2.5 to 3.5 kg
Unlike the closely related guenons, vervets are not primarily forest dwellers, rather, they are semi-arboreal and semi-terrestrial, spending most of the day on the ground feeding and then sleeping at night in the trees. However they must drink each day and are dependent on water, so they are never far from rivers or lakes. Like most other members of the Cercopithecoidea superfamily, they have cheek pouches for storing food. They are diurnal, and are particularly active in the early morning and in the later afternoon or early evening.
Radiation
Radiation describes any process in which energy emitted by one body travels through a medium or through space, ultimately to be absorbed by another body. Non-physicists often associate the word with ionizing radiation (e.g., as occurring in nuclear weapons, nuclear reactors, and radioactive substances), but it can also refer to electromagnetic radiation (i.e., radio waves, infrared light, visible light, ultraviolet light, and X-rays) which can also be ionizing radiation, to acoustic radiation, or to other more obscure processes. What makes it radiation is that the energy radiates (i.e., it travels outward in straight lines in all directions) from the source. This geometry naturally leads to a system of measurements and physical units that are equally applicable to all types of radiation.
Particle radiation is radiation in which the energy is carried by fast moving sub-atomic particles such as electrons, protons, neutrons, etc. In most cases, the energy of the individual particles is high enough that the radiation can also be classified as ionizing radiation.
Non-ionizing (or non-ionising) radiation, by contrast, refers to any type of radiation that does not carry enough energy per quantum to ionize atoms or molecules. Most especially, it refers to the lower energy forms of electromagnetic radiation (i.e., radio waves, microwaves, terahertz radiation, infrared light, and visible light). The effects of these forms of radiation on living tissue have only recently been studied. Instead of producing charged ions when passing through matter, the electromagnetic radiation has sufficient energy only for excitation, the movement of an electron to a higher energy state. Nevertheless, different biological effects are observed for different types of non-ionizing radiation.
Particle radiation is radiation in which the energy is carried by fast moving sub-atomic particles such as electrons, protons, neutrons, etc. In most cases, the energy of the individual particles is high enough that the radiation can also be classified as ionizing radiation.
Non-ionizing (or non-ionising) radiation, by contrast, refers to any type of radiation that does not carry enough energy per quantum to ionize atoms or molecules. Most especially, it refers to the lower energy forms of electromagnetic radiation (i.e., radio waves, microwaves, terahertz radiation, infrared light, and visible light). The effects of these forms of radiation on living tissue have only recently been studied. Instead of producing charged ions when passing through matter, the electromagnetic radiation has sufficient energy only for excitation, the movement of an electron to a higher energy state. Nevertheless, different biological effects are observed for different types of non-ionizing radiation.
Ultrasonic Sound
Ultrasound is cyclic sound pressure with a frequency greater than the upper limit of human hearing. Although this limit varies from person to person, it is approximately 20 kilohertz (20,000 hertz) in healthy, young adults and thus, 20 kHz serves as a useful lower limit in describing ultrasound. The production of ultrasound is used in many different fields, typically to penetrate a medium and measure the reflection signature or supply focused energy. The reflection signature can reveal details about the inner structure of the medium. The most well known application of this technique is its use in sonography to produce pictures of fetuses in the human womb. There are a vast number of other applications as well.
The upper frequency limit in humans (approximately 20 kHz) is caused by the middle ear, which acts as a low-pass filter. Ultrasonic hearing can occur if ultrasound is fed directly into the skull bone and reaches the cochlea without passing through the middle ear. Carefully-designed scientific studies have been performed supporting what the authors call the hypersonic effect - that even without consciously hearing it; high-frequency sound can have a measurable effect on the mind.
It is a fact in psychoacoustics that children can hear some high-pitched sounds that older adults cannot hear, because in humans the upper limit pitch of hearing tends to become lower with age. A cell phone company has used this to create ring signals supposedly only able to be heard by younger humans; but many older people claim to be able to hear it, which is likely given the considerable variation of age-related deterioration in the upper hearing threshold.
The upper frequency limit in humans (approximately 20 kHz) is caused by the middle ear, which acts as a low-pass filter. Ultrasonic hearing can occur if ultrasound is fed directly into the skull bone and reaches the cochlea without passing through the middle ear. Carefully-designed scientific studies have been performed supporting what the authors call the hypersonic effect - that even without consciously hearing it; high-frequency sound can have a measurable effect on the mind.
It is a fact in psychoacoustics that children can hear some high-pitched sounds that older adults cannot hear, because in humans the upper limit pitch of hearing tends to become lower with age. A cell phone company has used this to create ring signals supposedly only able to be heard by younger humans; but many older people claim to be able to hear it, which is likely given the considerable variation of age-related deterioration in the upper hearing threshold.
Film editing
Film editing is the process of selecting and joining together shots, connecting the resulting sequences, and ultimately creating a finished motion picture. It is an art of storytelling. Film editing is the only art that is unique to cinema, separating film-making from other art forms that preceded it (such as photography, theater, dance, writing, and directing), although there are close parallels to the editing process in other art forms like poetry or novel writing. Film editing is often referred to as the "invisible art" because when it is well-practiced, the viewer can become so engaged that he or she is not even aware of the editor's work.
On its most fundamental level, film editing is the art, technique, and practice of assembling shots into a coherent whole. A film editor is a person who practices film editing by assembling the footage. However, the job of an editor isn’t simply to mechanically put pieces of a film together, cut off film slates, or edit dialogue scenes. A film editor must creatively work with the layers of images, story, dialogue, music, pacing, as well as the actors' performances to effectively "redirect" and even rewrite the film to craft a cohesive whole. Editors usually play a dynamic role in the making of a film.
With the advent of digital editing, film editors and their assistants have become responsible for many areas of filmmaking that used to be the responsibility of others. For instance, in past years, picture editors dealt only with just that -- picture. Sound, music, and (more recently) visual effects editors dealt with the practicalities of other aspects of the editing process, usually under the direction of the picture editor and director.
However, digital systems have increasingly put these responsibilities on the picture editor. It is common, especially on lower budget films, for the assistant editors or even the editor to cut in music, mock up visual effects, and add sound effects or other sound replacements. These temporary elements are usually replaced with more refined final elements by the sound, music, and visual effects teams hired to complete the picture.
On its most fundamental level, film editing is the art, technique, and practice of assembling shots into a coherent whole. A film editor is a person who practices film editing by assembling the footage. However, the job of an editor isn’t simply to mechanically put pieces of a film together, cut off film slates, or edit dialogue scenes. A film editor must creatively work with the layers of images, story, dialogue, music, pacing, as well as the actors' performances to effectively "redirect" and even rewrite the film to craft a cohesive whole. Editors usually play a dynamic role in the making of a film.
With the advent of digital editing, film editors and their assistants have become responsible for many areas of filmmaking that used to be the responsibility of others. For instance, in past years, picture editors dealt only with just that -- picture. Sound, music, and (more recently) visual effects editors dealt with the practicalities of other aspects of the editing process, usually under the direction of the picture editor and director.
However, digital systems have increasingly put these responsibilities on the picture editor. It is common, especially on lower budget films, for the assistant editors or even the editor to cut in music, mock up visual effects, and add sound effects or other sound replacements. These temporary elements are usually replaced with more refined final elements by the sound, music, and visual effects teams hired to complete the picture.
Sight Glass
A sight glass or water gauge is a transparent tube through which the operator of a tank or boiler can observe the level of liquid contained within. Simple sight glasses may be just a plastic or glass tube connected to the bottom of the tank at one end and the top of the tank at the other. The level of liquid in the sight glass will be the same as the level of liquid in the tank. Today, however, sophisticated float switches have replaced sight glasses in many such applications.
If the liquid is hazardous or under pressure, more sophisticated arrangements must be made. In the case of a boiler, the pressure of the water below and the steam above is equal, so any change in the water level will be seen in the gauge. The transparent tube (the “glass” itself) may be mostly enclosed within a metal or toughened glass shroud to prevent it from being damaged through scratching or impact and offering protection to the operators in the case of breakage.
This usually has a patterned backplate to make the magnifying effect of the water in the tube more obvious and so allow for easier reading. In some locomotives where the boiler operated at very high pressures, the tube itself would be made of metal-reinforced toughened glass. It is important to keep the water at the specified level, otherwise the top of the firebox will be exposed, creating an overheat hazard and causing damage and possibly catastrophic failure.
To check that the device is offering a correct reading and the connecting pipes to the boiler are not blocked by scale, the water level needs to be “bobbed” by quickly opening the taps in turn and allowing a brief spurt of water through the drain cock.
If the liquid is hazardous or under pressure, more sophisticated arrangements must be made. In the case of a boiler, the pressure of the water below and the steam above is equal, so any change in the water level will be seen in the gauge. The transparent tube (the “glass” itself) may be mostly enclosed within a metal or toughened glass shroud to prevent it from being damaged through scratching or impact and offering protection to the operators in the case of breakage.
This usually has a patterned backplate to make the magnifying effect of the water in the tube more obvious and so allow for easier reading. In some locomotives where the boiler operated at very high pressures, the tube itself would be made of metal-reinforced toughened glass. It is important to keep the water at the specified level, otherwise the top of the firebox will be exposed, creating an overheat hazard and causing damage and possibly catastrophic failure.
To check that the device is offering a correct reading and the connecting pipes to the boiler are not blocked by scale, the water level needs to be “bobbed” by quickly opening the taps in turn and allowing a brief spurt of water through the drain cock.
Induction Sealing
The closure is supplied to the bottler with foil liner already inserted. Although there are various liners to choose from, a typical induction liner is multi-layered. The top layer is a paper pulp that is generally spot-glued to the cap. The next layer is wax that is used to bond the foil to the pulp. The bottom layer is a polymer film laminated to the foil. After the cap or closure is applied, the container passes under an induction coil, which emits an oscillating electromagnetic field.
As the container passes under the induction coil (sealing head) the conductive aluminum foil liner begins to heat. The heat melts the wax, which is absorbed into the pulp backing and releases the foil from the cap. The polymer film also heats and flows onto the lip of the container. When cooled, the polymer creates a bond with the container resulting in a hermetically sealed product. Neither the container nor its contents are affected, and this all happens in a matter of seconds.
It is possible to overheat the foil causing damage to the seal layer and to any protective barriers. This could result in faulty seals, even weeks after the initial sealing process, so proper sizing of the induction sealing is vital to determine the exact system necessary to run a particular product. Sealing can be done with either a hand held unit or on a conveyor system.
A more recent development (which suits a small number of applications better) allows for induction sealing to be used to apply a foil seal to a container without the need for a closure. In this case, foil is supplied pre-cut or in a reel. Where supplied in a reel, it is dying cut and transferred onto the container neck. When the foil is in place, it is pressed down by the seal head, the induction cycle is activated and the seal is bonded to the container. This process is known as direct application or sometimes "capless" induction sealing.
As the container passes under the induction coil (sealing head) the conductive aluminum foil liner begins to heat. The heat melts the wax, which is absorbed into the pulp backing and releases the foil from the cap. The polymer film also heats and flows onto the lip of the container. When cooled, the polymer creates a bond with the container resulting in a hermetically sealed product. Neither the container nor its contents are affected, and this all happens in a matter of seconds.
It is possible to overheat the foil causing damage to the seal layer and to any protective barriers. This could result in faulty seals, even weeks after the initial sealing process, so proper sizing of the induction sealing is vital to determine the exact system necessary to run a particular product. Sealing can be done with either a hand held unit or on a conveyor system.
A more recent development (which suits a small number of applications better) allows for induction sealing to be used to apply a foil seal to a container without the need for a closure. In this case, foil is supplied pre-cut or in a reel. Where supplied in a reel, it is dying cut and transferred onto the container neck. When the foil is in place, it is pressed down by the seal head, the induction cycle is activated and the seal is bonded to the container. This process is known as direct application or sometimes "capless" induction sealing.
Watt meters
An early current meter was the electrodynamometer. Used in the early 20th century, the Siemens electrodynamometer, for example, is a form of an electrodynamic ammeter, that has a fixed coil which is surrounded by another coil having its axis at right angles to that of the fixed coil. This second coil is suspended by a number of silk fibres, and to the coil is also attached a spiral spring the other end of which is fastened to a torsion head.
If then the torsion head is twisted, the suspended coil experiences a torque and is displaced through and angle equal to that of the torsion head. The current can be passed into and out of the movable coil by permitting the ends of the coil to dip into two mercury cups. If a current is passed through the fixed coil and movable coil in series with one another, the movable coil tends to displace itself so as to bring the axes of the coils, which are normally at right angles, more into the same direction.
This tendency can be resisted by giving a twist to the torsion head and so applying to the movable coil through the spring a restoring torque, which opposes the torque due to the dynamic action of the currents. If then the torsion head is provided with an index needle, and also if the movable coil is provided with an indicating point, it is possible to measure the torsional angle through which the head must be twisted to bring the movable coil back to its zero position.
In these circumstances, the torsional angle becomes a measure of the torque and therefore of the product of the strengths of the currents in the two coils, that is to say, of the square of the strength of the current passing through the two coils if they are joined up in series. The instrument can therefore be graduated by passing through it known and measured continuous currents, and it then becomes available for use with either continuous or alternating currents. The instrument can be provided with a curve or table showing the current corresponding to each angular displacement of the torsion head.
If then the torsion head is twisted, the suspended coil experiences a torque and is displaced through and angle equal to that of the torsion head. The current can be passed into and out of the movable coil by permitting the ends of the coil to dip into two mercury cups. If a current is passed through the fixed coil and movable coil in series with one another, the movable coil tends to displace itself so as to bring the axes of the coils, which are normally at right angles, more into the same direction.
This tendency can be resisted by giving a twist to the torsion head and so applying to the movable coil through the spring a restoring torque, which opposes the torque due to the dynamic action of the currents. If then the torsion head is provided with an index needle, and also if the movable coil is provided with an indicating point, it is possible to measure the torsional angle through which the head must be twisted to bring the movable coil back to its zero position.
In these circumstances, the torsional angle becomes a measure of the torque and therefore of the product of the strengths of the currents in the two coils, that is to say, of the square of the strength of the current passing through the two coils if they are joined up in series. The instrument can therefore be graduated by passing through it known and measured continuous currents, and it then becomes available for use with either continuous or alternating currents. The instrument can be provided with a curve or table showing the current corresponding to each angular displacement of the torsion head.
Moving-coil Instrument
A moving coil galvanometer can be used as a voltmeter by inserting a resistor in series with the instrument. It employs a small coil of fine wire suspended in a strong magnetic field. When an electrical current is applied, the galvanometer's indicator rotates and compresses a small spring. The angular rotation is proportional to the current through the coil. For use as a voltmeter, a series resistance is added so that the angular rotation becomes proportional to the applied voltage.
One of the design objectives of the instrument is to disturb the circuit as little as possible and so the instrument should draw a minimum of current to operate. This is achieved by using a sensitive ammeter or microammeter in series with a high resistance.
The sensitivity of such a meter can be expressed as "ohms per volt", the number of ohms resistance in the meter circuit divided by the full scale measured value. For example a meter with a sensitivity of 1000 ohms per volt would draw 1 milliampere at full scale voltage; if the full scale was 200 volts, the resistance at the instrument's terminals would be 200,000 ohms and at full scale the meter would draw 1 milliampere from the circuit under test. For multi-range instruments, the input resistance varies as the instrument is switched to different ranges.
Moving-coil instruments with a permanent-magnet field respond only to direct current. Measurement of AC voltage requires a rectifier in the circuit so that the coil deflects in only one direction. Moving-coil instruments are also made with the zero position in the middle of the scale instead of at one end; these are useful if the voltage reverses its polarity.
Voltmeters operating on the electrostatic principle use the mutual repulsion between two charged plates to deflect a pointer attached to a spring. Meters of this type draw negligible current but are sensitive to voltages over about 100 volts and work with either alternating or direct current.
One of the design objectives of the instrument is to disturb the circuit as little as possible and so the instrument should draw a minimum of current to operate. This is achieved by using a sensitive ammeter or microammeter in series with a high resistance.
The sensitivity of such a meter can be expressed as "ohms per volt", the number of ohms resistance in the meter circuit divided by the full scale measured value. For example a meter with a sensitivity of 1000 ohms per volt would draw 1 milliampere at full scale voltage; if the full scale was 200 volts, the resistance at the instrument's terminals would be 200,000 ohms and at full scale the meter would draw 1 milliampere from the circuit under test. For multi-range instruments, the input resistance varies as the instrument is switched to different ranges.
Moving-coil instruments with a permanent-magnet field respond only to direct current. Measurement of AC voltage requires a rectifier in the circuit so that the coil deflects in only one direction. Moving-coil instruments are also made with the zero position in the middle of the scale instead of at one end; these are useful if the voltage reverses its polarity.
Voltmeters operating on the electrostatic principle use the mutual repulsion between two charged plates to deflect a pointer attached to a spring. Meters of this type draw negligible current but are sensitive to voltages over about 100 volts and work with either alternating or direct current.
Alcohol Production
An alcoholic beverage is a drink containing ethanol (commonly called alcohol). Alcoholic beverages are divided into three general classes: beers, wines, and spirits.
Most nations regulate the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages. In particular, laws often specify the minimum age at which a person may legally buy them, or even drink them. This minimum age ranges from 16 years for buying beer and wine in Germany, the Netherlands, France, Austria, and Switzerland — to 25 years in India. In Germany, 14-year-old persons may buy low-alcohol beverages, if their parents are present. Alcoholic beverages are part of most European cultures; children in these cultures may occasionally drink alcohol during meals with their family.
The production and consumption of alcohol occurs in most cultures and societies of the world, from hunter-gatherer peoples to nation-states. Drinking is very often an important part of social events in such societies, and it can be an important aspect of a community’s culture.
Ethanol (alcohol) is a psychoactive drug that has a depressant effect. A high blood alcohol content is usually considered to be legal drunkenness because it reduces attention and slows reaction speed. Alcoholic beverages can be addictive, and the state of addiction to alcohol is known as alcoholism.
Most nations regulate the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages. In particular, laws often specify the minimum age at which a person may legally buy them, or even drink them. This minimum age ranges from 16 years for buying beer and wine in Germany, the Netherlands, France, Austria, and Switzerland — to 25 years in India. In Germany, 14-year-old persons may buy low-alcohol beverages, if their parents are present. Alcoholic beverages are part of most European cultures; children in these cultures may occasionally drink alcohol during meals with their family.
The production and consumption of alcohol occurs in most cultures and societies of the world, from hunter-gatherer peoples to nation-states. Drinking is very often an important part of social events in such societies, and it can be an important aspect of a community’s culture.
Ethanol (alcohol) is a psychoactive drug that has a depressant effect. A high blood alcohol content is usually considered to be legal drunkenness because it reduces attention and slows reaction speed. Alcoholic beverages can be addictive, and the state of addiction to alcohol is known as alcoholism.
Chemical Disinfectants
Disinfectants should generally be distinguished from antibiotics that destroy microorganisms within the body, and from antiseptics, which destroy microorganisms on living tissue. Sanitizers are substances that reduce the number of microorganisms to a safe level. One official and legal definition states that a sanitizer must be capable of killing 99.999%, known as a 5 log reduction, of a specific bacterial test population, and to do so within 30 seconds.
The main difference between a sanitizer and a disinfectant is that at a specified use dilution, the disinfectant must have a higher kill capability for pathogenic bacteria compared to that of a sanitizer. Very few disinfectants and sanitizers can sterilise (the complete elimination of all microorganisms), and those that can depend entirely on their mode of application. Bacterial end spores are most resistant to disinfectants, however some viruses and bacteria also possess some tolerance.
A perfect disinfectant would offer complete and full sterilisation, without harming other forms of life, be inexpensive, and non-corrosive. Unfortunately ideal disinfectants do not exist. Most disinfectants are also, by their very nature, potentially harmful (even toxic) to humans or animals. They should be treated with appropriate care. Most come with safety instructions printed on the packaging, which should be read in full before using the disinfectant.
Most modern household disinfectants contain Bitrex, an exceptionally bitter substance designed to discourage ingestion, as an added safety measure. Those that are used indoors should never be mixed with other cleaning products as chemical reactions can occur. They are frequently used in hospitals, dental surgeries, kitchens and bathrooms to kill infectious organisms.
The main difference between a sanitizer and a disinfectant is that at a specified use dilution, the disinfectant must have a higher kill capability for pathogenic bacteria compared to that of a sanitizer. Very few disinfectants and sanitizers can sterilise (the complete elimination of all microorganisms), and those that can depend entirely on their mode of application. Bacterial end spores are most resistant to disinfectants, however some viruses and bacteria also possess some tolerance.
A perfect disinfectant would offer complete and full sterilisation, without harming other forms of life, be inexpensive, and non-corrosive. Unfortunately ideal disinfectants do not exist. Most disinfectants are also, by their very nature, potentially harmful (even toxic) to humans or animals. They should be treated with appropriate care. Most come with safety instructions printed on the packaging, which should be read in full before using the disinfectant.
Most modern household disinfectants contain Bitrex, an exceptionally bitter substance designed to discourage ingestion, as an added safety measure. Those that are used indoors should never be mixed with other cleaning products as chemical reactions can occur. They are frequently used in hospitals, dental surgeries, kitchens and bathrooms to kill infectious organisms.
Laser technology
A laser is a device that emits light (electromagnetic radiation) through a process called stimulated emission. The term laser is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. Laser light is usually spatially coherent, which means that the light either is emitted in a narrow, low-divergence beam, or can be converted into one with the help of optical components such as lenses. Typically, lasers are thought of as emitting light with a narrow wavelength spectrum ("monochromatic" light).
This is not true of all lasers, however: some emit light with a broad spectrum, while others emit light at multiple distinct wavelengths simultaneously. The coherence of typical laser emission is distinctive. Most other light sources emit incoherent light, which has a phase that varies randomly with time and position. The word laser originated as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
The word light in this phrase is used in the broader sense, referring to electromagnetic radiation of any frequency, not just that in the visible spectrum. Hence there are infrared lasers, ultraviolet lasers, X-ray lasers, etc. Because the microwave equivalent of the laser, the maser, was developed first, devices that emit microwave and radio frequencies are usually called masers. In early literature, particularly from researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories, the laser was often called the optical maser. This usage has since become uncommon, and as of 1998 even Bell Labs uses the term laser.
The back-formed verb to lase means "to produce laser light" or "to apply laser light to". The word "laser" is sometimes used to describe other non-light technologies. For example, a source of atoms in a coherent state is called an "atom laser".
This is not true of all lasers, however: some emit light with a broad spectrum, while others emit light at multiple distinct wavelengths simultaneously. The coherence of typical laser emission is distinctive. Most other light sources emit incoherent light, which has a phase that varies randomly with time and position. The word laser originated as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
The word light in this phrase is used in the broader sense, referring to electromagnetic radiation of any frequency, not just that in the visible spectrum. Hence there are infrared lasers, ultraviolet lasers, X-ray lasers, etc. Because the microwave equivalent of the laser, the maser, was developed first, devices that emit microwave and radio frequencies are usually called masers. In early literature, particularly from researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories, the laser was often called the optical maser. This usage has since become uncommon, and as of 1998 even Bell Labs uses the term laser.
The back-formed verb to lase means "to produce laser light" or "to apply laser light to". The word "laser" is sometimes used to describe other non-light technologies. For example, a source of atoms in a coherent state is called an "atom laser".
Potentio Meter
A potentiometer is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used (one side and the wiper), it acts as a variable resistor or Rheostat. Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as a volume control of a radio. Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as position transducers, for example, in a joystick.
Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant power (more than a watt). Instead they are used to adjust the level of analog signals (e.g. volume controls on audio equipment), and as control inputs for electronic circuits. For example, a light dimmer uses a potentiometer to control the switching of a TRIrAC and so indirectly control the brightness of lamps.
Potentiometers are sometimes provided with one or more switches mounted on the same shaft. For instance, when attached to a volume control, the knob can also function as an on/off switch at the lowest volume. potentiometer (colloquially called a "pot") is constructed using a semi-circular resistive element with a sliding contact (wiper). The resistive element, with a terminal at one or both ends, is flat or angled, and is commonly made of graphite, although other materials may be used instead.
The wiper is connected through another sliding contact to another terminal. On panel pots, the wiper is usually the center terminal of three. For single-turn pots, this wiper typically travels just under one revolution around the contact. "Multiturn" potentiometers also exist, where the resistor element may be helical and the wiper may move 10, 20, or more complete revolutions, though multiturn pots are usually constructed of a conventional resistive element wiped via a worm gear. Besides graphite, materials used to make the resistive element include resistance wire, carbon particles in plastic, and a ceramic/metal mixture called cermet.
Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant power (more than a watt). Instead they are used to adjust the level of analog signals (e.g. volume controls on audio equipment), and as control inputs for electronic circuits. For example, a light dimmer uses a potentiometer to control the switching of a TRIrAC and so indirectly control the brightness of lamps.
Potentiometers are sometimes provided with one or more switches mounted on the same shaft. For instance, when attached to a volume control, the knob can also function as an on/off switch at the lowest volume. potentiometer (colloquially called a "pot") is constructed using a semi-circular resistive element with a sliding contact (wiper). The resistive element, with a terminal at one or both ends, is flat or angled, and is commonly made of graphite, although other materials may be used instead.
The wiper is connected through another sliding contact to another terminal. On panel pots, the wiper is usually the center terminal of three. For single-turn pots, this wiper typically travels just under one revolution around the contact. "Multiturn" potentiometers also exist, where the resistor element may be helical and the wiper may move 10, 20, or more complete revolutions, though multiturn pots are usually constructed of a conventional resistive element wiped via a worm gear. Besides graphite, materials used to make the resistive element include resistance wire, carbon particles in plastic, and a ceramic/metal mixture called cermet.
Object lens
In optics, an objective is the lens or mirror in a microscope, telescope, camera or other optical instrument that gathers the light coming from the object being observed, and focuses the rays to produce a real image. The objective is also called the object lens, object glass, and objective glass.
Microscope objectives are typically designed to be parfocal, which means that when one changes from one lens to another on a microscope, the sample stays in focus. Microscope objectives are characterized by two parameters, namely, magnification and numerical aperture.
The former typically ranges from 5× to 100× while the latter ranges from 0.14 to 0.7, corresponding to focal lengths of about 40 to 2 mm, respectively. For high magnification applications, an oil-immersion objective or water-immersion objective has to be used. The objective is specially designed and refractive index matching oil or water must fill the air gap between the front element and the object to allow the numerical aperture to exceed 1, and hence give greater resolution at high magnification.
Numerical apertures as high as 1.6 can be achieved with oil immersion. To find the total magnification of a microscope, one multiplies the magnification of the objective lenses by that of the eyepiece.
Microscope objectives are typically designed to be parfocal, which means that when one changes from one lens to another on a microscope, the sample stays in focus. Microscope objectives are characterized by two parameters, namely, magnification and numerical aperture.
The former typically ranges from 5× to 100× while the latter ranges from 0.14 to 0.7, corresponding to focal lengths of about 40 to 2 mm, respectively. For high magnification applications, an oil-immersion objective or water-immersion objective has to be used. The objective is specially designed and refractive index matching oil or water must fill the air gap between the front element and the object to allow the numerical aperture to exceed 1, and hence give greater resolution at high magnification.
Numerical apertures as high as 1.6 can be achieved with oil immersion. To find the total magnification of a microscope, one multiplies the magnification of the objective lenses by that of the eyepiece.
Amplifier
Generally, an amplifier or simply amp, is any device that changes, usually increases, the amplitude of a signal. The "signal" is usually voltage or current. In popular use, the term today usually refers to an electronic amplifier, often as in audio applications. The relationship of the input to the output of an amplifier — usually expressed as a function of the input frequency — is called the transfer function of the amplifier, and the magnitude of the transfer function is termed the gain.
A related device that emphasizes conversion of signals of one type to another (for example, a light signal in photons to a DC signal in amperes) is a transducer, a transformer, or a sensor. However, none of these amplify power. The bandwidth (BW) of an amplifier is the range of frequencies for which the amplifier gives "satisfactory performance". The "satisfactory performance" may be different for different applications.
However, a common and well-accepted metric are the half power points (i.e. frequency where the power goes down by half its peak value) on the power vs. frequency curve. Therefore bandwidth can be defined as the difference between the lower and upper half power points. This is therefore also known as the −3 dB bandwidth. Bandwidths for other response tolerances are sometimes quoted (−1 dB, −6 dB etc.). A full-range audio amplifier will be essentially flat between 20 Hz to about 20 kHz (the range of normal human hearing.)
In minimalist amplifier design, the amp's usable frequency response needs to extend considerably beyond this (one or more octaves either side) and typically a good minimalist amplifier will have −3 dB points <> 65 kHz. Professional touring amplifiers often have input and/or output filtering to sharply limit frequency response beyond 20 Hz-20 kHz; too much of the amplifier's potential output power would otherwise be wasted on infrasonic and ultrasonic frequencies, and the danger of AM radio interference would increase. Modern switching amplifiers need steep low pass filtering at the output to get rid of high frequency switching noise and harmonics.
A related device that emphasizes conversion of signals of one type to another (for example, a light signal in photons to a DC signal in amperes) is a transducer, a transformer, or a sensor. However, none of these amplify power. The bandwidth (BW) of an amplifier is the range of frequencies for which the amplifier gives "satisfactory performance". The "satisfactory performance" may be different for different applications.
However, a common and well-accepted metric are the half power points (i.e. frequency where the power goes down by half its peak value) on the power vs. frequency curve. Therefore bandwidth can be defined as the difference between the lower and upper half power points. This is therefore also known as the −3 dB bandwidth. Bandwidths for other response tolerances are sometimes quoted (−1 dB, −6 dB etc.). A full-range audio amplifier will be essentially flat between 20 Hz to about 20 kHz (the range of normal human hearing.)
In minimalist amplifier design, the amp's usable frequency response needs to extend considerably beyond this (one or more octaves either side) and typically a good minimalist amplifier will have −3 dB points <> 65 kHz. Professional touring amplifiers often have input and/or output filtering to sharply limit frequency response beyond 20 Hz-20 kHz; too much of the amplifier's potential output power would otherwise be wasted on infrasonic and ultrasonic frequencies, and the danger of AM radio interference would increase. Modern switching amplifiers need steep low pass filtering at the output to get rid of high frequency switching noise and harmonics.
Air Bellows
Bellows Air Force Station (Bellows Field) is a United States military reservation located in Waimanalo, Hawaii. Once an important air field during World War II, the reservation now serves as a military training area and recreation area for active and retired military and civilian employees of the Department of Defense. It is operated by Detachment 1, 15th Mission Support Group of the 15th Airlift Wing based at Hickam Air Force Base.
Created in 1917 as the Waimanalo Military Reservation, the base was renamed Bellows Field in 1933 after Lt. Franklin Barney Bellows, a World War I war hero. Bellows Field was made a permanent military post in July 1941, and it was one of the airfields attacked during the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.
A bellows is a device for delivering pressurized air in a controlled quantity to a controlled location. Basically, a bellows is a deformable container which has an outlet nozzle. When the volume of the bellows is decreased, the air escapes through the outlet. A bellows typically also has a separate inlet and valves or flaps for ensuring that air enters only through the inlet and exits only through the outlet.
Created in 1917 as the Waimanalo Military Reservation, the base was renamed Bellows Field in 1933 after Lt. Franklin Barney Bellows, a World War I war hero. Bellows Field was made a permanent military post in July 1941, and it was one of the airfields attacked during the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.
A bellows is a device for delivering pressurized air in a controlled quantity to a controlled location. Basically, a bellows is a deformable container which has an outlet nozzle. When the volume of the bellows is decreased, the air escapes through the outlet. A bellows typically also has a separate inlet and valves or flaps for ensuring that air enters only through the inlet and exits only through the outlet.
Measurement of Force
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Gyroscope
A gyroscope is a device for measuring or maintaining orientation, based on the principles of angular momentum. The device is a spinning wheel or disk whose axle is free to take any orientation. This orientation changes much less in response to a given external torque than it would without the large angular momentum associated with the gyroscope's high rate of spin. Since external torque is minimized by mounting the device in gimbals, its orientation remains nearly fixed, regardless of any motion of the platform on which it is mounted.
Within mechanical systems or devices, a conventional gyroscope is a mechanism comprising a rotor journaled to spin about one axis, the journals of the rotor being mounted in an inner gimbal or ring, the inner gimbal being journaled for oscillation in an outer gimbal which in turn is journaled for oscillation relative to a support. The outer gimbal or ring is mounted so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane determined by the support. The outer gimbal possesses one degree of rotational freedom and its axis possesses none. The inner gimbal is mounted in the outer gimbal so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane, which axis is always perpendicular to the pivotal axis of the outer gimbal.
The axle of the spinning wheel defines the spin axis. The inner gimbal possesses two degrees of rotational freedom and its axis possesses one. The rotor is journaled to spin about an axis which is always perpendicular to the axis of the inner gimbal. So, the rotor possesses three degrees of rotational freedom and its axis possesses two. The wheel responds to a force applied about the input axis by a reaction force about the output axis.
The behaviour of a gyroscope can be most easily appreciated by consideration of the front wheel of a bicycle. If the wheel is leaned away from the vertical so that the top of the wheel moves to the left, the forward rim of the wheel also turns to the left. In other words, rotation on one axis of the turning wheel produces rotation of the third axis.
Within mechanical systems or devices, a conventional gyroscope is a mechanism comprising a rotor journaled to spin about one axis, the journals of the rotor being mounted in an inner gimbal or ring, the inner gimbal being journaled for oscillation in an outer gimbal which in turn is journaled for oscillation relative to a support. The outer gimbal or ring is mounted so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane determined by the support. The outer gimbal possesses one degree of rotational freedom and its axis possesses none. The inner gimbal is mounted in the outer gimbal so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane, which axis is always perpendicular to the pivotal axis of the outer gimbal.
The axle of the spinning wheel defines the spin axis. The inner gimbal possesses two degrees of rotational freedom and its axis possesses one. The rotor is journaled to spin about an axis which is always perpendicular to the axis of the inner gimbal. So, the rotor possesses three degrees of rotational freedom and its axis possesses two. The wheel responds to a force applied about the input axis by a reaction force about the output axis.
The behaviour of a gyroscope can be most easily appreciated by consideration of the front wheel of a bicycle. If the wheel is leaned away from the vertical so that the top of the wheel moves to the left, the forward rim of the wheel also turns to the left. In other words, rotation on one axis of the turning wheel produces rotation of the third axis.
Theodolite
A theodolite is an instrument for measuring both horizontal and vertical angles, as used in triangulation networks. It is a key tool in surveying and engineering work, particularly on inaccessible ground, but theodolites have been adapted for other specialized purposes in fields like meteorology and rocket launch technology. A modern theodolite consists of a movable telescope mounted within two perpendicular axes—the horizontal or trunnion axis, and the vertical axis.
When the telescope is pointed at a desired object, the angle of each of these axes can be measured with great precision, typically on the scale of arcseconds. "Transit" refers to a specialized type of theodolite that was developed in the early 19th century. It featured a telescope that could "flop over" ("transit the scope") to allow easy back-sighting and doubling of angles for error reduction.
Some transit instruments were capable of reading angles directly to thirty arcseconds. In the middle of the 20th century, "transit" came to refer to a simple form of theodolite with less precision, lacking features such as scale magnification and mechanical meters. The importance of transits is waning since compact, accurate electronic theodolites have become widespread tools, but the transit still finds use as a lightweight tool on construction sites.
Some transits do not measure vertical angles. The builder's level is often mistaken for a transit but is actually a type of inclinometer. It measures neither horizontal nor vertical angles. It simply combines a spirit level and telescope to allow the user to visually establish a line of sight along a level plane.
When the telescope is pointed at a desired object, the angle of each of these axes can be measured with great precision, typically on the scale of arcseconds. "Transit" refers to a specialized type of theodolite that was developed in the early 19th century. It featured a telescope that could "flop over" ("transit the scope") to allow easy back-sighting and doubling of angles for error reduction.
Some transit instruments were capable of reading angles directly to thirty arcseconds. In the middle of the 20th century, "transit" came to refer to a simple form of theodolite with less precision, lacking features such as scale magnification and mechanical meters. The importance of transits is waning since compact, accurate electronic theodolites have become widespread tools, but the transit still finds use as a lightweight tool on construction sites.
Some transits do not measure vertical angles. The builder's level is often mistaken for a transit but is actually a type of inclinometer. It measures neither horizontal nor vertical angles. It simply combines a spirit level and telescope to allow the user to visually establish a line of sight along a level plane.
Telescope
A telescope is an instrument designed for the observation of remote objects by the collection of electromagnetic radiation. The first known practically functioning telescopes were invented in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 17th century. "Telescopes" can refer to a whole range of instruments operating in most regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The word "telescope" was coined in 1611 by the Greek mathematician Giovanni Demisiani for one of Galileo Galilei's instruments presented at a banquet at the Accademia dei Lincei. In the Starry Messenger Galileo had used the term "perspicillum".
The earliest evidence of working telescopes were the refracting telescopes that appeared in the Netherlands in 1608. Their development is credited to three individuals: Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen, who were spectacle makers in Middelburg, and Jacob Metius of Alkmaar. Galileo greatly improved upon these designs the following year.
The idea that a mirror could be used as an objective instead of a lens was being investigated soon after the invention of the refracting telescope. The potential advantages of using parabolic mirrors, primarily reduction of spherical aberration with no chromatic aberration, led to many proposed designs and several attempts to build reflecting telescopes. In 1668, Isaac Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope that bears his name, the Newtonian reflector.
The word "telescope" was coined in 1611 by the Greek mathematician Giovanni Demisiani for one of Galileo Galilei's instruments presented at a banquet at the Accademia dei Lincei. In the Starry Messenger Galileo had used the term "perspicillum".
The earliest evidence of working telescopes were the refracting telescopes that appeared in the Netherlands in 1608. Their development is credited to three individuals: Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen, who were spectacle makers in Middelburg, and Jacob Metius of Alkmaar. Galileo greatly improved upon these designs the following year.
The idea that a mirror could be used as an objective instead of a lens was being investigated soon after the invention of the refracting telescope. The potential advantages of using parabolic mirrors, primarily reduction of spherical aberration with no chromatic aberration, led to many proposed designs and several attempts to build reflecting telescopes. In 1668, Isaac Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope that bears his name, the Newtonian reflector.
Wave Analyzer
Wave can be used to view the specified DB record or records on any display controlled by an X11 server. It includes facilities for interactive annotation editing. The keyboard and mouse are used to control the display interactively. First-time users should read the WAVE User's Guide. (One way to do this is by pointing your Web browser to file:///usr/local/help/html/wug/wug.htm, or to http://ecg.mit.edu for the latest version.) If the Guide is unavailable, print a copy of the on-line manual; run wave without any command-line arguments to get instructions for doing so. Note that this operation does not require an X display.
If you specify more than one record, a separate wave process is started for each record. Note that all records to be opened must be listed in a single command-line argument following -r, with + characters (not spaces) between the record names. See `Running two or more WAVE processes' below.
Use the left mouse button to make selections, and the right mouse button to open menus (indicated by triangular glyphs at the right end of some buttons). See the Guide or the on-line manual for notes on annotation editing.
If you specify more than one record, a separate wave process is started for each record. Note that all records to be opened must be listed in a single command-line argument following -r, with + characters (not spaces) between the record names. See `Running two or more WAVE processes' below.
Use the left mouse button to make selections, and the right mouse button to open menus (indicated by triangular glyphs at the right end of some buttons). See the Guide or the on-line manual for notes on annotation editing.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the heated cathode (negative electrode) and accelerated toward the fluorescent screen. The assembly of the cathode, intensity grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode (positive electrode) is called an electron gun. Its purpose is to generate the electron beam and control its intensity and focus. Between the electron gun and the fluorescent screen are two pair of metal plates - one oriented to provide horizontal deflection of the beam and one pair oriented ot give vertical deflection to the beam.
These plates are thus referred to as the horizontal and vertical deflection plates. The combination of these two deflections allows the beam to reach any portion of the fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron beam hits the screen, the phosphor is excited and light is emitted from that point. This coversion of electron energy into light allows us to write with points or lines of light on an otherwise darkened screen.
In the most common use of the oscilloscope the signal to be studied is first amplified and then applied to the vertical (deflection) plates to deflect the beam vertically and at the same time a voltage that increases linearly with time is applied to the horizontal (deflection) plates thus causing the beam to be deflected horizontally at a uniform (constant> rate. The signal applied to the verical plates is thus displayed on the screen as a function of time. The horizontal axis serves as a uniform time scale.
The linear deflection or sweep of the beam horizontally is accomplished by use of a sweep generator that is incorporated in the oscilloscope circuitry. The voltage output of such a generator is that of a sawtooth wave as shown in Fig. 2. Application of one cycle of this voltage difference, which increases linearly with time, to the horizontal plates causes the beam to be deflected linearly with time across the tube face. When the voltage suddenly falls to zero, as at points (a) (b) (c), etc...., the end of each sweep - the beam flies back to its initial position. The horizontal deflection of the beam is repeated periodically, the frequency of this periodicity is adjustable by external controls.
These plates are thus referred to as the horizontal and vertical deflection plates. The combination of these two deflections allows the beam to reach any portion of the fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron beam hits the screen, the phosphor is excited and light is emitted from that point. This coversion of electron energy into light allows us to write with points or lines of light on an otherwise darkened screen.
In the most common use of the oscilloscope the signal to be studied is first amplified and then applied to the vertical (deflection) plates to deflect the beam vertically and at the same time a voltage that increases linearly with time is applied to the horizontal (deflection) plates thus causing the beam to be deflected horizontally at a uniform (constant> rate. The signal applied to the verical plates is thus displayed on the screen as a function of time. The horizontal axis serves as a uniform time scale.
The linear deflection or sweep of the beam horizontally is accomplished by use of a sweep generator that is incorporated in the oscilloscope circuitry. The voltage output of such a generator is that of a sawtooth wave as shown in Fig. 2. Application of one cycle of this voltage difference, which increases linearly with time, to the horizontal plates causes the beam to be deflected linearly with time across the tube face. When the voltage suddenly falls to zero, as at points (a) (b) (c), etc...., the end of each sweep - the beam flies back to its initial position. The horizontal deflection of the beam is repeated periodically, the frequency of this periodicity is adjustable by external controls.
Analog Electronic Voltmeter
Moving coil galvanometer can be used as a voltmeter by inserting a resistor in series with the instrument. It employs a small coil of fine wire suspended in a strong magnetic field. When an electrical current is applied, the galvanometer's indicator rotates and compresses a small spring. The angular rotation is proportional to the current through the coil. For use as a voltmeter, a series resistance is added so that the angular rotation becomes proportional to the applied voltage.
One of the design objectives of the instrument is to disturb the circuit as little as possible and so the instrument should draw a minimum of current to operate. This is achieved by using a sensitive ammeter or microammeter in series with a high resistance.
The sensitivity of such a meter can be expressed as "ohms per volt", the number of ohms resistance in the meter circuit divided by the full scale measured value. For example a meter with a sensitivity of 1000 ohms per volt would draw 1 milliampere at full scale voltage; if the full scale was 200 volts, the resistance at the instrument's terminals would be 200,000 ohms and at full scale the meter would draw 1 milliampere from the circuit under test. For multi-range instruments, the input resistance varies as the instrument is switched to different ranges.
Moving-coil instruments with a permanent-magnet field respond only to direct current. Measurement of AC voltage requires a rectifier in the circuit so that the coil deflects in only one direction. Moving-coil instruments are also made with the zero position in the middle of the scale instead of at one end; these are useful if the voltage reverses its polarity.
Voltmeters operating on the electrostatic principle use the mutual repulsion between two charged plates to deflect a pointer attached to a spring. Meters of this type draw negligible current but are sensitive to voltages over about 100 volts and work with either alternating or direct current.
One of the design objectives of the instrument is to disturb the circuit as little as possible and so the instrument should draw a minimum of current to operate. This is achieved by using a sensitive ammeter or microammeter in series with a high resistance.
The sensitivity of such a meter can be expressed as "ohms per volt", the number of ohms resistance in the meter circuit divided by the full scale measured value. For example a meter with a sensitivity of 1000 ohms per volt would draw 1 milliampere at full scale voltage; if the full scale was 200 volts, the resistance at the instrument's terminals would be 200,000 ohms and at full scale the meter would draw 1 milliampere from the circuit under test. For multi-range instruments, the input resistance varies as the instrument is switched to different ranges.
Moving-coil instruments with a permanent-magnet field respond only to direct current. Measurement of AC voltage requires a rectifier in the circuit so that the coil deflects in only one direction. Moving-coil instruments are also made with the zero position in the middle of the scale instead of at one end; these are useful if the voltage reverses its polarity.
Voltmeters operating on the electrostatic principle use the mutual repulsion between two charged plates to deflect a pointer attached to a spring. Meters of this type draw negligible current but are sensitive to voltages over about 100 volts and work with either alternating or direct current.
Trade Act
The Trade Disputes Act 1906 (6 Edward VII, c 47) was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed under the Liberal government of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman. The Act declared that unions could not be sued for damages incurred during a strike.
The immediate cause for the Act was a trilogy of cases in the House of Lords, which had for the first time imposed damages in tort on trade unions for going on strike. Previously, the legal status of trade unions was as an "unincorporated association", was accepted to mean that they did not have legal standing to sue, or be sued, in court.
Before the change, the two important cases were Lumley v Gye (1857) and Allen v Flood (1897). Lumley did not concern trade unions, but invented a new legal principle. A man persuaded a singer to come and perform at his show, and drop the one she had contracted for. The court held that the man would have to pay damages to the person the singer dropped for that loss. This is a principle readily applicable to union situations. In the case of a strike, a union effectively persuades or decides for workers to go on strike, in breach of their contracts with employers. But in Allen, the House of Lords held that a trade union could not be sued by a non-union worker for pressuring the employer into not hiring them. They said that even though the union's motive was malicious, the employer not hiring the non-union worker was lawful.
But then, Taff Vale Railway Co v Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants (1901) surprised everyone by saying that trade unions could be held liable for damages caused by industrial action. The Lords said if unions can harm people, they are bodies capable of being sued.
The immediate cause for the Act was a trilogy of cases in the House of Lords, which had for the first time imposed damages in tort on trade unions for going on strike. Previously, the legal status of trade unions was as an "unincorporated association", was accepted to mean that they did not have legal standing to sue, or be sued, in court.
Before the change, the two important cases were Lumley v Gye (1857) and Allen v Flood (1897). Lumley did not concern trade unions, but invented a new legal principle. A man persuaded a singer to come and perform at his show, and drop the one she had contracted for. The court held that the man would have to pay damages to the person the singer dropped for that loss. This is a principle readily applicable to union situations. In the case of a strike, a union effectively persuades or decides for workers to go on strike, in breach of their contracts with employers. But in Allen, the House of Lords held that a trade union could not be sued by a non-union worker for pressuring the employer into not hiring them. They said that even though the union's motive was malicious, the employer not hiring the non-union worker was lawful.
But then, Taff Vale Railway Co v Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants (1901) surprised everyone by saying that trade unions could be held liable for damages caused by industrial action. The Lords said if unions can harm people, they are bodies capable of being sued.
Copy right able things
SONG LYRICS – translations also protected
There will be copyright in the words or lyrics to any song performed. These are protected as a literary work, separate to the copyright in the musical notation or the sound recording itself. This protection will last for the life of the lyric writer plus 70 years, unless the creator of the work died before 1 January 1955 in which case the material is no longer protected by copyright.
A translation of the lyrics would also create a new and separate copyright to that in the original words. This in turn would attract copyright protection for the period of life of the translator plus 70 years unless the translator died before 1 January 1955.
MUSICAL NOTATION – arrangements also protected
There will be copyright in the musical notation itself, lasting for the life of the composer plus 70 years, unless the creator of the work died before 1 January 1955 in which case the copyright has expired.
Each new arrangement will attract copyright protection for the person who made the arrangement, even where the original work is out of copyright. This protection will last for the life of the arranger plus 70 years. If the arranger died before 1 January 1955 the protection for that aspect of the work has ended.
PUBLISHED EDITION COPYRIGHT
Sheet music is protected by a separate copyright for the publisher’s physical layout of the information on the page.
If the academic is reproducing a facsimile of sheet music in their research, using a copy of a work that was published in hard copy less than 25 years ago, they will need permission from the publisher, to use that particular edition.
There will be copyright in the words or lyrics to any song performed. These are protected as a literary work, separate to the copyright in the musical notation or the sound recording itself. This protection will last for the life of the lyric writer plus 70 years, unless the creator of the work died before 1 January 1955 in which case the material is no longer protected by copyright.
A translation of the lyrics would also create a new and separate copyright to that in the original words. This in turn would attract copyright protection for the period of life of the translator plus 70 years unless the translator died before 1 January 1955.
MUSICAL NOTATION – arrangements also protected
There will be copyright in the musical notation itself, lasting for the life of the composer plus 70 years, unless the creator of the work died before 1 January 1955 in which case the copyright has expired.
Each new arrangement will attract copyright protection for the person who made the arrangement, even where the original work is out of copyright. This protection will last for the life of the arranger plus 70 years. If the arranger died before 1 January 1955 the protection for that aspect of the work has ended.
PUBLISHED EDITION COPYRIGHT
Sheet music is protected by a separate copyright for the publisher’s physical layout of the information on the page.
If the academic is reproducing a facsimile of sheet music in their research, using a copy of a work that was published in hard copy less than 25 years ago, they will need permission from the publisher, to use that particular edition.
Patentable Things
Good idea to create an article on Patentable subject matter, but why inserting this criterion after novelty in the patentability article and in the template? In European patent law, an invention is first examined in order to see whether it relates to excluded subject-matter, then novelty is examined. Is it different under United States patent law?
We may have to find a compromise. --Edcolins 11:40, 17 October 2005 (UTC). As I understand it, in the UK a patent application can be knocked out on any of the patentability grounds at any stage in the patent office process, as the nature of what is new about the patent becomes clearer, and more investigation is done into the previous state of the art.
As Mr Prescott QC found in CPFH's Application, a preliminary sanity check can sometimes settle the question of Article 52, but not always: rather, the tests must be taken together - to be patentable, what is new and non-obvious about the invention must also be patentable subject matter. The reason I preferred the order I chose, is that it seems IMO the sequence which best goes from the most general and fundamental first, to the most special and particular last -- and so this is the best order to present them to a layperson, reading about patentability for the first time.
First, and most fundamentally for a layman, an invention must be new -- because that is the whole purpose of the patent system, to encourage the development of new things. Secondly, an invention must be new, and not one of the few things excluded from patentability. Thirdly, an invention must be new, not excluded, and sufficiently different from what has gone before. Fourthly, it must not be a perpetual motion machine. That's why I think it makes sense to present the tests in this order.
We may have to find a compromise. --Edcolins 11:40, 17 October 2005 (UTC). As I understand it, in the UK a patent application can be knocked out on any of the patentability grounds at any stage in the patent office process, as the nature of what is new about the patent becomes clearer, and more investigation is done into the previous state of the art.
As Mr Prescott QC found in CPFH's Application, a preliminary sanity check can sometimes settle the question of Article 52, but not always: rather, the tests must be taken together - to be patentable, what is new and non-obvious about the invention must also be patentable subject matter. The reason I preferred the order I chose, is that it seems IMO the sequence which best goes from the most general and fundamental first, to the most special and particular last -- and so this is the best order to present them to a layperson, reading about patentability for the first time.
First, and most fundamentally for a layman, an invention must be new -- because that is the whole purpose of the patent system, to encourage the development of new things. Secondly, an invention must be new, and not one of the few things excluded from patentability. Thirdly, an invention must be new, not excluded, and sufficiently different from what has gone before. Fourthly, it must not be a perpetual motion machine. That's why I think it makes sense to present the tests in this order.
Patent
A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a state to an inventor or his assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for a disclosure of an invention. The procedure for granting patents, the requirements placed on the patentee and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements.
Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims defining the invention which must be new, inventive, and useful or industrially applicable. In many countries, certain subject areas are excluded from patents, such as business methods and mental acts. The exclusive right granted to a patentee in most countries is the right to prevent others from making, using, selling, or distributing the patented invention without permission.
The term patent usually refers to a right granted to anyone who invents or discovers any new and useful process, machine, article of manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement thereof. The additional qualification utility patents is used in the United States to distinguish them from other types of patents but should not be confused with utility models granted by other countries. Examples of particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents and software patents.
Intellectual Property Rights
Understanding Intellectual Property Rights, Rationale of Patent System, An Overview of the IPR Regime, Intellectual Property System, Trademarks-Mother of the Advertising Industry, Europeans and Intellectual Property Rights : A Case Study, Intellectual Property in Everyday Life - A Virtual Tour, Conceptual and Legal Understanding of Intellectual Property Rights, Intellectual in UK:
A Case Study, Design Protection in UK, General Economics and Political Economy of IPR, Economics of Filmed Entertainment, Political Economy of Intellectual Property, Board Overview of IPR Themes, Glossary, Intellectual Property Rights Education in the Creative Industries. Internationalisation the Capitalist Class, The Transnationalization of Communications and Culture, Logic of Capital and Intellectual Property Rights, Class Theoretical Position, Copyrights for Cable Retransmission in Canada, International Copyright Conflicts, Copyright Foreign Policy Apparatus, Hollywood's International Antipiracy Campaign, Forms of Videocassette Piracy, Piracy in the Middle East, Video Piracy in Asia, Multila-teralism:
US Accession to Berne and GATT Reform, GATT Revision, Impact of Intellectual Property Rights on the International and Regional Stages, The International Division of Labour and the Protection of Intellectual Property Rights, Impact of Rise of Global Intellectual Property Rights in Asia, IP Rights Management in Australia, A Developing Country's Perspective on IPR, Support for Economic and Political Freedom and IPR, Emerging Issues in Intellectual Property, Developments having an Impact on Intellectual Property Protection, The Government Contract.
Property Institute, IPR in Information Age, Issues in Access to Information, Recommendations for Research and Data Collection, Guidelines for use in Formulating Law and Public Policy, Intellectual Property Rights : Problems, Patterns and Policy, Technologies for Intellectual Property Protection, Preliminaries, Encryption, Digital Signatures, Management of Encryption Keys : Public-Key Infrastructure, Management of Encryption Keys : Used and Middleware Issues, Marking and Monitoring, Cryptographic Envelopes, Superdistribution.
Intellectual Property
Intellectual property (IP) are legal property rights over creations of the mind, both artistic and commercial, and the corresponding fields of law. Under intellectual property law, owners are granted certain exclusive rights to a variety of intangible assets, such as musical, literary, and artistic works; ideas, discoveries and inventions; and words, phrases, symbols, and designs. Common types of intellectual property include copyrights, trademarks, patents, industrial design rights and trade secrets.
The majority of intellectual property rights provide creators of original works economic incentive to develop and share ideas through a form of temporary monopoly. While credited with significant contributions to modern economic growth, some have criticised the expansion in nature and scope of IP laws.
Although many of the legal principles governing intellectual property have evolved over centuries, it was not until the late 20th century that the term intellectual property began to be used as a unifying concept
Intellectual property rights are a bundle of exclusive rights over creations of the mind, both artistic and commercial. The former is covered by copyright laws, which protect creative works, such as books, movies, music, paintings, photographs, and software, and gives the copyright holder exclusive right to control reproduction or adaptation of such works for a certain period of time.
The second category is collectively known as "industrial properties", as they are typically created and used for industrial or commercial purposes. A patent may be granted for a new, useful, and non-obvious invention and gives the patent holder a right to prevent others from practicing the invention without a license from the inventor for a certain period of time. A trademark is a distinctive sign which is used to prevent confusion among products in the marketplace
The majority of intellectual property rights provide creators of original works economic incentive to develop and share ideas through a form of temporary monopoly. While credited with significant contributions to modern economic growth, some have criticised the expansion in nature and scope of IP laws.
Although many of the legal principles governing intellectual property have evolved over centuries, it was not until the late 20th century that the term intellectual property began to be used as a unifying concept
Intellectual property rights are a bundle of exclusive rights over creations of the mind, both artistic and commercial. The former is covered by copyright laws, which protect creative works, such as books, movies, music, paintings, photographs, and software, and gives the copyright holder exclusive right to control reproduction or adaptation of such works for a certain period of time.
The second category is collectively known as "industrial properties", as they are typically created and used for industrial or commercial purposes. A patent may be granted for a new, useful, and non-obvious invention and gives the patent holder a right to prevent others from practicing the invention without a license from the inventor for a certain period of time. A trademark is a distinctive sign which is used to prevent confusion among products in the marketplace
Copy Right
Copyright is a form of intellectual property which gives the creator of an original work exclusive rights for a certain time period in relation to that work, including its publication, distribution and adaptation; after which time the work is said to enter the public domain.
Copyright applies to any expressible form of an idea or information that is substantive and discrete. Some jurisdictions also recognize "moral rights" of the creator of a work, such as the right to be credited for the work.
An example of the intent of copyright, based in the United States Constitution, is simply to promote the progress of science and arts by securing for limited times the exclusive right of the creator.
Copyright has been internationally standardized, lasting between fifty to a hundred years from the author's death, or a finite period for anonymous or corporate authorship; some jurisdictions have required formalities to establishing copyright, most recognize copyright in any completed work, without formal registration. Generally, copyright is enforced as a civil matter, though some jurisdictions do apply criminal sanctions.
Most jurisdictions recognize copyright limitations, allowing "fair" exceptions to the author's exclusivity of copyright, and giving users certain rights. The development of the Internet, digital media, computer network technologies, such as peer-to-peer file sharing, have prompted reinterpretation of these exceptions, introduced new difficulties in enforcing copyright, and inspired additional challenges to copyright law's philosophic basis. Simultaneously, businesses with great economic dependence upon copyright have advocated the extension and expansion of their copy rights, and sought additional legal and technological enforcement.
Copyright applies to any expressible form of an idea or information that is substantive and discrete. Some jurisdictions also recognize "moral rights" of the creator of a work, such as the right to be credited for the work.
An example of the intent of copyright, based in the United States Constitution, is simply to promote the progress of science and arts by securing for limited times the exclusive right of the creator.
Copyright has been internationally standardized, lasting between fifty to a hundred years from the author's death, or a finite period for anonymous or corporate authorship; some jurisdictions have required formalities to establishing copyright, most recognize copyright in any completed work, without formal registration. Generally, copyright is enforced as a civil matter, though some jurisdictions do apply criminal sanctions.
Most jurisdictions recognize copyright limitations, allowing "fair" exceptions to the author's exclusivity of copyright, and giving users certain rights. The development of the Internet, digital media, computer network technologies, such as peer-to-peer file sharing, have prompted reinterpretation of these exceptions, introduced new difficulties in enforcing copyright, and inspired additional challenges to copyright law's philosophic basis. Simultaneously, businesses with great economic dependence upon copyright have advocated the extension and expansion of their copy rights, and sought additional legal and technological enforcement.
Trade Secret
Spring makeup is all about fun colors and the I-just-spent-the-day-at-the-spa glow. Mineral formulas help you create gorgeous looks you'll love while hydrating, nourishing and protecting your skin for a flawless look that doesn't disappear when you take off your makeup.
This season's trends revolve around daring shades like emerald, gold, plum and indigo. Now's the perfect time to add fun, flattering colors to your usual palette. Lightly dust them on your lids for day, then layer the colors for a dramatic evening look.
A great bronzer will become your new best friend this spring. While you don't want to look like you just returned from Rio, a bit of color adds dimension and plays up your best features. The key for spring is looking fresh-faced and energized for day, then pumping up the drama for evening. As always, have fun with your makeup and mix it up every season.
This season's trends revolve around daring shades like emerald, gold, plum and indigo. Now's the perfect time to add fun, flattering colors to your usual palette. Lightly dust them on your lids for day, then layer the colors for a dramatic evening look.
A great bronzer will become your new best friend this spring. While you don't want to look like you just returned from Rio, a bit of color adds dimension and plays up your best features. The key for spring is looking fresh-faced and energized for day, then pumping up the drama for evening. As always, have fun with your makeup and mix it up every season.
Trade Mark
A trademark is a type of intellectual property, and typically a name, word, phrase, logo, symbol, design, image, or a combination of these elements. There is also a range of non-conventional trademarks comprising marks which do not fall into these standard categories.
The owner of a registered trademark may commence legal proceedings for trademark infringement to prevent unauthorized use of that trademark. However, registration is not required. The owner of a common law trademark may also file suit, but an unregistered mark may be protectable only within the geographical area within which it has been used or in geographical areas into which it may be reasonably expected to expand.
The term trademark is also used informally to refer to any distinguishing attribute by which an individual is readily identified, such as the well known characteristics of celebrities. When a trademark is used in relation to services rather than products, it may sometimes be called a service mark, particularly in the United States.
The owner of a registered trademark may commence legal proceedings for trademark infringement to prevent unauthorized use of that trademark. However, registration is not required. The owner of a common law trademark may also file suit, but an unregistered mark may be protectable only within the geographical area within which it has been used or in geographical areas into which it may be reasonably expected to expand.
The term trademark is also used informally to refer to any distinguishing attribute by which an individual is readily identified, such as the well known characteristics of celebrities. When a trademark is used in relation to services rather than products, it may sometimes be called a service mark, particularly in the United States.
Assam Tea
Assam tea is manufactured specifically from the plant Camellia assamica, that is commonly (mistakenly) referred to as Camellia sinensis var. assamica. This tea, most of which is grown at or near sea level, is known for its body, briskness, malty flavor, and strong, bright color. Assam teas, or blends containing Assam, are often sold as "breakfast" teas. English Breakfast tea, Irish Breakfast tea, and Scottish Breakfast Tea are common generic names.
Though "Assam" generally denotes the distinctive black teas from Assam, the region produces relatively smaller quantities of green and white teas as well with their own distinctive characteristics.
Historically, Assam is the second commercial tea production region after southern China. Southern China and Assam are the only two regions in the world with native tea plants. Assam tea revolutionized tea drinking habits in the 19th century since the tea, produced from a different variety of the tea plant, yielded a different kind of tea.
Though "Assam" generally denotes the distinctive black teas from Assam, the region produces relatively smaller quantities of green and white teas as well with their own distinctive characteristics.
Historically, Assam is the second commercial tea production region after southern China. Southern China and Assam are the only two regions in the world with native tea plants. Assam tea revolutionized tea drinking habits in the 19th century since the tea, produced from a different variety of the tea plant, yielded a different kind of tea.
Garlic as Medicinal Thing
I was reading through the article's section about the medicinal uses and health benefits of garlic and looked up a few of the sources about the NIH-funded trials dealing with garlic's ability to lower cholesterol. I don't doubt the study has it's benefits and adds to our understanding dealing with garlic and cholesterol, but I noticed a few problems with this part of the article.
To start, in the article, the quote is attributed to being found at "heart.org," which will take one to the American Heart Association, however, the article is actually found at "theheart.org," which is part of the Web MD site. Second, the quote in the article is not really needed. After reading the study, it seems to just be one in many with differing results.
Even within the study, the researcher (Gardner) mentions that the study was specifically for cholesterol and had nothing to do with other possible cardiovascular benefits of garlic such as lowering blood pressure, improving circulation etc. It seems that these few paragraphs should be rewritten to reflect other possible benefits of garlic rather than a primary focus on just cholesterol.
No other quotes are included for the other studies mentioned reflecting studies that have found garlic to be useful in lowing cholesterol levels, lowing blood pressure, etc. I think that rather than quoting the study, possibly just mentioning the study and findings would fit more in line with the tone of the rest of the section.
To start, in the article, the quote is attributed to being found at "heart.org," which will take one to the American Heart Association, however, the article is actually found at "theheart.org," which is part of the Web MD site. Second, the quote in the article is not really needed. After reading the study, it seems to just be one in many with differing results.
Even within the study, the researcher (Gardner) mentions that the study was specifically for cholesterol and had nothing to do with other possible cardiovascular benefits of garlic such as lowering blood pressure, improving circulation etc. It seems that these few paragraphs should be rewritten to reflect other possible benefits of garlic rather than a primary focus on just cholesterol.
No other quotes are included for the other studies mentioned reflecting studies that have found garlic to be useful in lowing cholesterol levels, lowing blood pressure, etc. I think that rather than quoting the study, possibly just mentioning the study and findings would fit more in line with the tone of the rest of the section.
Marbles
Marbles are often mentioned in Roman literature, and there are many examples of marbles from ancient Egypt. They were commonly made of clay, stone or glass. Ceramic marbles entered inexpensive mass production in the 1870s.
A German glassblower invented marble scissors in 1846, a device for making marbles. They entered mass production in Ohio the early 20th century when World War I cut off their importation from Europe. This tasked the American marble industry to produce a mechanized method of glass marble production that soon became the most common system in the world. Glass marbles became the most popular variety and have remained so to this day.
In some developing countries, children use steel, minerals or tiny rocks as less pricey marble substitutes. A marble is a small spherical toy usually made from glass, clay, or agate. These balls vary in size. Most commonly, they are about ½ inch (1.25 cm) across, but they may range from less than ¼ inch (0.635 cm) to over 3 inches (7.75 cm), while some art glass marbles for display purposes are over 12 inches (30 cm) wide. Marbles can be used for a variety of children's games, and are often collected, both for nostalgia and for their aesthetic colors.
A German glassblower invented marble scissors in 1846, a device for making marbles. They entered mass production in Ohio the early 20th century when World War I cut off their importation from Europe. This tasked the American marble industry to produce a mechanized method of glass marble production that soon became the most common system in the world. Glass marbles became the most popular variety and have remained so to this day.
In some developing countries, children use steel, minerals or tiny rocks as less pricey marble substitutes. A marble is a small spherical toy usually made from glass, clay, or agate. These balls vary in size. Most commonly, they are about ½ inch (1.25 cm) across, but they may range from less than ¼ inch (0.635 cm) to over 3 inches (7.75 cm), while some art glass marbles for display purposes are over 12 inches (30 cm) wide. Marbles can be used for a variety of children's games, and are often collected, both for nostalgia and for their aesthetic colors.
Granites
Granite is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive, felsic, igneous rock. Granite has a medium to coarse texture, occasionally with some individual crystals larger than the groundmass forming a rock known as porphyry.
Granites can be pink to dark gray or even black, depending on their chemistry and mineralogy. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors, and rounded massifs. Granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels.
Granite is nearly always massive (lacking internal structures), hard and tough, and therefore it has gained widespread use as a construction stone. The average density of granite is 2.75 g/cm3 and its viscosity at standard temperature and pressure is ~4.5 • 1019 Pa·s. The word granite comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the coarse-grained structure of such a crystalline rock.
Granites can be pink to dark gray or even black, depending on their chemistry and mineralogy. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors, and rounded massifs. Granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels.
Granite is nearly always massive (lacking internal structures), hard and tough, and therefore it has gained widespread use as a construction stone. The average density of granite is 2.75 g/cm3 and its viscosity at standard temperature and pressure is ~4.5 • 1019 Pa·s. The word granite comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the coarse-grained structure of such a crystalline rock.
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